Spacers for electrodes, electrode stacks and batteries and systems and methods therefor

ABSTRACT

A battery includes an electrode assembly. The electrode assembly has a population of unit cells, each unit cell including an electrode current collector layer, an electrode layer, a separator layer, a counter-electrode layer, and a counter-electrode current collector layer in stacked succession. The electrode layer has an electrode active material, and the counter-electrode layer has a counter-electrode active material. One of the electrode active material and the counter-electrode material is a cathodically active material and the other of the electrode active material and the counter-electrode material is an anodically active material. A subset of the unit cell population includes a pair of spacer members located between the electrode current collector layer and the counter-electrode current collector layer. At least a portion of the counter-electrode active material is located between the spacer members in a common plane defined by the x and z axes.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application63/115,266, filed 18 Nov. 2020 and U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No.63/115,578 filed 18 Nov. 2020. Both of these provisional applicationsare incorporated herein in their entireties by reference.

Reference is made to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/533,082, filedon 6 Aug. 2019, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional PatentApplication No. 62/715,233, filed 6 Aug. 2018, and to InternationalPatent Application No. PCT/US2018/061245, filed 15 Nov. 2018, whichclaims priority to US Provisional Applications Nos. 62/586,737, filed 15Nov. 2017 and 62/715,233, filed 6 Aug. 2018, each of these applicationsare hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties.

FIELD

The field of the disclosure relates generally to energy storagetechnology, such as battery technology. More specifically, the field ofthe disclosure relates to systems and methods for the assembly of energystorage systems, such as electrodes for use in secondary batteries,including lithium based batteries.

BACKGROUND

Lithium based secondary batteries have become desirable energy sourcesdue to their comparatively high energy density, power and shelf life.Examples of lithium secondary batteries include non-aqueous batteriessuch as lithium-ion and lithium-polymer batteries.

Known energy storage devices, such as batteries, fuel cells andelectrochemical capacitors, typically have two-dimensional laminararchitectures, such as planar or spirally wound (i.e., jellyroll)laminate structures, where a surface area of each laminate isapproximately equal to its geometric footprint (ignoring porosity andsurface roughness).

FIG. 1 illustrates a cross-sectional view of a known laminar typesecondary battery, indicated generally at 10. The battery 10 includes apositive electrode current collector 15 in contact with a positiveelectrode 20. A negative electrode 25 is separated from the positiveelectrode 20 by a separator 30. The negative electrode 25 is in contactwith a negative electrode current collector 35. As shown in FIG. 1 , thebattery 10 is formed in a stack. The stack is sometimes covered withanother separator layer (not shown) above the negative electrode currentcollector 35, and then rolled and placed into a can (not shown) toassemble the battery 10. During a charging process, a carrier ion(typically, lithium) leaves the positive electrode 20 and travelsthrough separator 30 into the negative electrode 25. Depending upon theanode material used, the carrier ion either intercalates (e.g., sits ina matrix of negative electrode material without forming an alloy) orforms an alloy with the negative electrode material. During a dischargeprocess, the carrier ion leaves the negative electrode 25 and travelsback through the separator 30 and back into the positive electrode 20.

Three-dimensional secondary batteries may provide increased capacity andlongevity compared to laminar secondary batteries. The production ofsuch three-dimensional secondary batteries, however, presentsmanufacturing and cost challenges. Precision manufacturing techniquesused, to-date, can yield secondary batteries having improved cycle lifebut at the expense of productivity and cost of manufacturing. When knownmanufacturing techniques are sped up, however, an increased number ofdefects, loss of capacity and reduced longevity of the batteries canresult.

Thus, it would be desirable to produce three-dimensional batteries whileaddressing the issues in the known art.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION

An embodiment includes a secondary battery for cycling between a chargedstate and a discharged state. The battery comprises an enclosure and anelectrode assembly disposed within the enclosure, wherein the electrodeassembly has mutually perpendicular transverse, longitudinal, andvertical axes corresponding to the x, y and z axes, respectively, of athree-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. The electrode assemblycomprises a population of unit cells, each unit cell comprises anelectrode current collector layer, an electrode layer, a separatorlayer, a counter-electrode layer, and a counter-electrode currentcollector layer in stacked succession in the longitudinal direction. Theelectrode layer comprises an electrode active material, and thecounter-electrode layer comprises a counter-electrode active material.One of the electrode active material and the counter-electrode materialis a cathodically active material and the other of the electrode activematerial and the counter-electrode material is an anodically activematerial. A subset of the unit cell population further comprises a pairof spacer members located in the stacked succession between theelectrode current collector layer and the counter-electrode currentcollector layer. One of the spacer members is spaced in the transversedirection from the other spacer member. At least a portion of thecounter-electrode active material of the counter-electrode layer islocated between the spacer members such that the portion of thecounter-electrode active material and the spacer members lie in a commonplane defined by the x and z axes.

Another embodiment includes an electrode assembly having mutuallyperpendicular transverse, longitudinal, and vertical axes correspondingto the x, y and z axes, respectively, of a three-dimensional Cartesiancoordinate system. The electrode assembly comprises a population of unitcells, each unit cell comprises an electrode current collector layer, anelectrode layer, a separator layer, a counter-electrode layer, and acounter-electrode current collector layer in stacked succession in thelongitudinal direction. The electrode layer comprises an electrodeactive material, and the counter-electrode layer comprises acounter-electrode active material. One of the electrode active materialand the counter-electrode material is a cathodically active material andthe other of the electrode active material and the counter-electrodematerial is an anodically active material. A subset of the unit cellpopulation further comprises a pair of spacer members located in thestacked succession between the electrode current collector layer and thecounter-electrode current collector layer. One of the spacer members isspaced in the transverse direction from the other spacer member. Atleast a portion of the counter-electrode active material of thecounter-electrode layer is located between the spacer members such thatthe portion of the counter-electrode active material and the spacermembers lie in a common plane defined by the x and z axes.

Another embodiment includes a method of manufacturing a unit cell foruse with a secondary battery. The method comprises stacking an electrodecurrent collector layer, an electrode layer, a separator layer, acounter-electrode layer, and a counter-electrode current collector layerin succession in the longitudinal direction. The electrode layercomprises an electrode active material, and the counter-electrode layercomprises a counter-electrode active material. One of the electrodeactive material and the counter-electrode material is a cathodicallyactive material and the other of the electrode active material and thecounter-electrode material is an anodically active material. The methodincludes placing a pair of spacer members in the stacked successionbetween the electrode current collector layer and the counter-electrodecurrent collector layer. One of the spacer members is spaced in atransverse direction from the other spacer member. At least a portion ofthe counter-electrode active material of the counter-electrode layer islocated between the spacer members such that the portion of thecounter-electrode active material and the spacer members lie in a commonplane defined by an x axis and a z axis.

Another embodiment includes a method of manufacturing an electrodeassembly for use with a secondary battery. The method comprises stackingan electrode current collector layer, an electrode layer, a separatorlayer, a counter-electrode layer, and a counter-electrode currentcollector layer in succession in the longitudinal direction. Theelectrode layer comprises an electrode active material, and thecounter-electrode layer comprises a counter-electrode active material.One of the electrode active material and the counter-electrode materialis a cathodically active material and the other of the electrode activematerial and the counter-electrode material is an anodically activematerial. The method includes placing a pair of spacer members in thestacked succession between the electrode current collector layer and thecounter-electrode current collector layer. One of the spacer members isspaced in a transverse direction from the other spacer member. At leasta portion of the counter-electrode active material of thecounter-electrode layer is located between the spacer members such thatthe portion of the counter-electrode active material and the spacermembers lie in a common plane defined by an x axis and a z axis.

Another embodiment includes a method for merging a plurality of webs ofelectrode materials. The process comprises unwinding a first web of theelectrode material along a first web merge path, the first webcomprising a population of electrode sub-units delineated bycorresponding weakened tear patterns and a population of first conveyingfeatures. The process further includes unwinding a second web of theelectrode material along a second web merge path downstream of the firstweb merge path, the second web comprising a population of electrodesub-units delineated by corresponding weakened tear patterns and apopulation of second conveying features. The process also includesconveying a belt comprising a plurality of projections in a web mergedirection adjacent the first web merge path and the second web mergepath. The plurality of projections is configured to engage with thefirst conveying features of the first web and the second conveyingfeatures of the second web. The process further includes inserting apopulation of spacer members between the first web of electrode materialand the second web of electrode material. The process includesoverlaying the second web of the electrode material on the first web ofelectrode material at a second web merge location downstream of thefirst web merge location, the population of spacer members beingcaptured between the first web of electrode material and the second webof electrode material.

Yet another embodiment includes a battery for cycling between a chargedstate and a discharged state, the battery comprising an enclosure and anelectrode assembly disposed within the enclosure, wherein the electrodeassembly has mutually perpendicular transverse, longitudinal, andvertical axes corresponding to the x, y and z axes, respectively, of athree-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. The electrode assemblycomprises a population of unit cells, each unit cell having a main body,a first edge margin, a second edge margin separated in the transversedirection from the first edge margin, a front, a back separated in thelongitudinal direction from the front, a top, and a bottom separated inthe vertical direction from the top, each main body comprising anelectrode current collector layer, an electrode layer, a separatorlayer, a counter-electrode layer, and a counter-electrode currentcollector layer in stacked succession in the longitudinal direction. Theelectrode layer comprises an electrode active material, and thecounter-electrode layer comprises a counter-electrode active material,wherein one of the electrode active material and the counter-electrodematerial is a cathodically active material and the other of theelectrode active material and the counter-electrode material is ananodically active material. Each of the first edge margin and the secondedge margin comprises (i) the electrode current collector layer, theseparator layer, and the counter-electrode current collector layer, and(ii) a tape spacer, each of the tape spacers being adhered to at leastone of (i) the electrode current collector, (ii) the electrode layer,(iii) the separator, and (iv) the counter-electrode current collector,the counter-electrode layer having a first end and a second end spacedin the transverse direction from the first end to define a transverseextent of the counter-electrode layer, the transverse extent of thecounter-electrode layer terminating prior to the first edge margin andsecond edge margin.

Yet another embodiment includes an electrode assembly for cyclingbetween a charged state and a discharged state in a battery, the batterycomprising an enclosure and an electrode assembly disposed within theenclosure, wherein the electrode assembly has mutually perpendiculartransverse, longitudinal, and vertical axes corresponding to the x, yand z axes, respectively, of a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinatesystem. The electrode assembly comprises a population of unit cells,each unit cell having a main body, a first edge margin, a second edgemargin separated in the transverse direction from the first edge margin,a front, a back separated in the longitudinal direction from the front,a top, and a bottom separated in the vertical direction from the top,each main body comprising an electrode current collector layer, anelectrode layer, a separator layer, a counter-electrode layer, and acounter-electrode current collector layer in stacked succession in thelongitudinal direction. The electrode layer comprises an electrodeactive material, and the counter-electrode layer comprises acounter-electrode active material, wherein one of the electrode activematerial and the counter-electrode material is a cathodically activematerial and the other of the electrode active material and thecounter-electrode material is an anodically active material. Each of thefirst edge margin and the second edge margin comprises (i) the electrodecurrent collector layer, the separator layer, and the counter-electrodecurrent collector layer, and (ii) a tape spacer, each of the tapespacers being adhered to at least one of (i) the electrode currentcollector, (ii) the electrode layer, (iii) the separator, and (iv) thecounter-electrode current collector, the counter-electrode layer havinga first end and a second end spaced in the transverse direction from thefirst end to define a transverse extent of the counter-electrode layer,the transverse extent of the counter-electrode layer terminating priorto the first edge margin and second edge margin.

Still another embodiment includes a unit cell for a battery configuredto cycle between a charged state and a discharged state, the unit cellhaving mutually perpendicular transverse, longitudinal, and verticalaxes corresponding to the x, y and z axes, respectively, of athree-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, the unit cell having amain body, a first edge margin, a second edge margin separated in thetransverse direction from the first edge margin, a front, a backseparated in the longitudinal direction from the front, a top, and abottom in the vertical direction from the top, the main body comprisingan electrode current collector layer, an electrode layer, a separatorlayer, a counter-electrode layer, counter-electrode layer, and acounter-electrode current collector layer in stacked succession in thelongitudinal direction. The electrode layer comprises an electrodeactive material, and the counter-electrode layer comprises acounter-electrode active material, wherein one of the electrode activematerial and the counter-electrode material is a cathodically activematerial and the other of the electrode active material and thecounter-electrode material is an anodically active material. Each of thefirst edge margin and the second edge margins of the main body comprises(i) the electrode current collector layer, the separator layer, and thecounter-electrode current collector layer, and (ii) a first tape spacerdisposed in the first edge margin and a second tape spacer disposed inthe second edge margin; each of the first tape spacer and the secondtape spacer being adhered to at least one of (i) the electrode currentcollector, (ii) the electrode layer, (iii) the separator, and (iv) thecounter-electrode current collector, the counter-electrode layer havinga first end and a second end spaced in the transverse direction from thefirst end to define a transverse extent of the counter-electrode layer,the transverse extent of the counter-electrode layer terminating priorto the first edge margin and second edge margin.

Still another embodiment includes an electrode assembly for a batteryconfigured to cycle between a charged state and a discharged state, theelectrode assembly having mutually perpendicular transverse,longitudinal, and vertical axes corresponding to the x, y and z axes,respectively, of a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, theelectrode assembly having a main body, a first edge margin, a secondedge margin separated in the transverse direction from the first edgemargin, a front, a back separated in the longitudinal direction from thefront, a top, and a bottom in the vertical direction from the top, themain body comprising an electrode current collector layer, an electrodelayer, a separator layer, a counter-electrode layer, counter-electrodelayer, and a counter-electrode current collector layer in stackedsuccession in the longitudinal direction. The electrode layer comprisesan electrode active material, and the counter-electrode layer comprisesa counter-electrode active material, wherein one of the electrode activematerial and the counter-electrode material is a cathodically activematerial and the other of the electrode active material and thecounter-electrode material is an anodically active material. Each of thefirst edge margin and the second edge margins of the main body comprises(i) the electrode current collector layer, the separator layer, and thecounter-electrode current collector layer, and (ii) a first tape spacerdisposed in the first edge margin and a second tape spacer disposed inthe second edge margin; each of the first tape spacer and the secondtape spacer being adhered to at least one of (i) the electrode currentcollector, (ii) the electrode layer, (iii) the separator, and (iv) thecounter-electrode current collector, the counter-electrode layer havinga first end and a second end spaced in the transverse direction from thefirst end to define a transverse extent of the counter-electrode layer,the transverse extent of the counter-electrode layer terminating priorto the first edge margin and second edge margin.

Another embodiment includes a method of preparing a unit cell for abattery configured to cycle between a charged state and a dischargedstate, the method comprising: stacking an electrode current collectorlayer, an electrode layer, a separator layer, a counter-electrode layer,and a counter-electrode current collector layer in stacked succession inthe longitudinal direction; wherein the electrode layer comprises anelectrode active material, and the counter-electrode layer comprises acounter-electrode active material, wherein one of the electrode activematerial and the counter-electrode material is a cathodically activematerial and the other of the electrode active material and thecounter-electrode material is an anodically active material, adhering atape spacer to at least one of the electrode current collector layer,the electrode layer, the separator layer, the counter-electrode layer,or the counter-electrode current collector layer within a first edgemargin and a second edge margin such that the first edge margin and thesecond edge margin comprises (i) the electrode current collector layer,the separator layer, and the counter-electrode current collector layer,and (ii) the tape spacer, wherein the counter-electrode layer has afirst end and a second end spaced in the transverse direction from thefirst end to define a transverse extent of the counter-electrode layer,and the counter-electrode layer is provided such that the transverseextent of the counter electrode layer terminates prior to the first edgemargin and second edge margin.

Another embodiment includes a method of preparing an electrode assemblyfor a battery configured to cycle between a charged state and adischarged state, the method comprising: stacking an electrode currentcollector layer, an electrode layer, a separator layer, acounter-electrode layer, and a counter-electrode current collector layerin stacked succession in the longitudinal direction; wherein theelectrode layer comprises an electrode active material, and thecounter-electrode layer comprises a counter-electrode active material,wherein one of the electrode active material and the counter-electrodematerial is a cathodically active material and the other of theelectrode active material and the counter-electrode material is ananodically active material, adhering a tape spacer to at least one ofthe electrode current collector layer, the electrode layer, theseparator layer, the counter-electrode layer, or the counter-electrodecurrent collector layer within a first edge margin and a second edgemargin such that the first edge margin and the second edge margincomprises (i) the electrode current collector layer, the separatorlayer, and the counter-electrode current collector layer, and (ii) thetape spacer, wherein the counter-electrode layer has a first end and asecond end spaced in the transverse direction from the first end todefine a transverse extent of the counter-electrode layer, and thecounter-electrode layer is provided such that the transverse extent ofthe counter electrode layer terminates prior to the first edge marginand second edge margin.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a cross-section of an existing laminar battery.

FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of one suitable embodiment of an electrodemanufacturing system according to the present disclosure.

FIG. 3 is an enlarged schematic view of one suitable embodiment of alaser system according to the present disclosure.

FIG. 4 is an isometric view of one suitable embodiment of a cuttingplenum according to the present disclosure.

FIG. 5 is a truncated top view of exemplary webs of base material formedinto electrodes after having been processed through the electrodemanufacturing system of the current disclosure.

FIG. 6 is a top view of an exemplary web of base material havingelectrode patterns formed thereon.

FIG. 6A is a perspective view of a portion of the web of base materialas an exemplary negative electrode.

FIG. 6B is a perspective view of a portion of the web of base materialas an exemplary positive electrode.

FIG. 7 is an enlarged top view of a portion of a web of base materialhaving an exemplary electrode pattern formed thereon

FIG. 8 is an isometric view of base material formed into a web ofelectrode material including electrode patterns after having beenprocessed through the electrode manufacturing system of the currentdisclosure.

FIG. 8A is a top view of a portion of the web of electrode material ofFIG. 8 .

FIG. 9 is an isometric view of one suitable embodiment of a rewindroller of the electrode manufacturing system of the current disclosure.

FIG. 10 is a top view of one suitable embodiment of a brushing stationof the current disclosure.

FIG. 11 is a side view of the exemplary brushing station shown in FIG.10 .

FIG. 12 is an isometric view of one suitable embodiment of an inspectionstation according to the current disclosure.

FIG. 13 is a top view of a chuck according to one suitable embodiment ofthe current disclosure.

FIG. 14 is a partial schematic view of a merging and stackingarrangement according to the current disclosure.

FIG. 14A is a partial side view of a stacking device according to thecurrent disclosure.

FIG. 14B is an enhanced detail view illustrating a portion of an unwindsection of the stacking device of FIG. 14A.

FIGS. 14C1-C3 illustrate a side, front and top view, respectively of themerging arrangement according to the present disclosure.

FIG. 14D is an isometric view of an electrode material tensioningsection of the electrode manufacturing system of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 14E1-E2 include side views and FIGS. 14E3-E4 include top views ofuntapered (top) and tapered (bottom) projections according toembodiments of the disclosure.

FIG. 14F1 shows an isometric view (left), FIG. 14F2 shows a top view andFIG. 14F3 shows side view (right) of counter rotating brushes accordingto an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 14G shows an enlarged view of an initial contact point shown inFIG. 14B of a web with a merge sprocket according to an embodiment ofthe present disclosure.

FIGS. 14H1-H3 show three views, a top view, a side view and aperspective view, respectively, of a web interacting with a mergesprocket according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 15 is a cross section of a multi-layer stack of electrodesaccording to the current disclosure.

FIG. 15A is a partial top view of a web of electrode material accordingto the current disclosure.

FIG. 16A is a side view of a multi-layer stack of electrode sub-unitsaccording to the current disclosure.

FIG. 16B is a partial top view of the multi-layer stack of electrodesub-units of FIG. 16A.

FIG. 16C is a partial top view of the multi-layer stack of FIG. 16Aafter rupture of a second perforation.

FIG. 17 is an isometric view of a stacked cell according to the currentdisclosure.

FIGS. 18A and 18B are sequential isometric views of a stacked cellhaving a battery package placed thereon.

FIG. 19 is a side view of a merging section of the system of the presentdisclosure.

FIG. 20 is a side view of a high volume stacking system of the presentdisclosure.

FIG. 20A is a partial close-up view of a toothed below of the highvolume stacking system of FIG. 20 .

FIG. 21 is a perspective view of a receiving unit according to thepresent disclosure.

FIG. 22 is a front view of a receiving unit of FIG. 21 .

FIG. 23 is a schematic view of an embodiment of a punching and stackingsystem of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 24A, 24B and 24C are a top view of a merged material webhighlighting an electrode sub-unit, an electrode sub-unit and a seriesof stacked electrode sub-units of the present disclosure, respectively.

FIG. 24D is a truncated view of an embodiment of a merged material webincluding a population of electrode sub-units.

FIG. 24E is an isometric view of a receiving unit of the presentdisclosure.

FIG. 24F is a front view illustrating a receiving unit having apopulation of electrode sub-units being stacked thereon.

FIG. 25 is an isometric view of a de-merge sprocket of the punching andstacking system of the present disclosure.

FIG. 26A is a top view of a punch head during a punching operationaccording to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 26B is an isometric view of the punch head shown in FIG. 26A.

FIG. 26C is a detail view of portion C of FIG. 26A.

FIG. 27 illustrates a spacer member on a web of electrode materialaccording to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 28 is a cross-sectional view along the line A-A of the web ofelectrode material with the spacer members of FIG. 27 .

FIG. 29 is an isometric view of a stacked cell including the spacermembers in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 30A-F are cross sectional views taken along section 30A-D of FIG.29 showing a single electrode sub-unit according to differentembodiments of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 31A-D are cross sectional views taken along section 31A-D of FIG.29 showing a single electrode sub-unit according to differentembodiments of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 32A-D are cross sectional views taken along section 32A-D of FIG.29 showing a single electrode sub-unit according to differentembodiments of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 33A-B illustrates embodiments of unit cells and electrodesub-units according to embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 34A-B illustrate cross sectional views taken along section 30A-Dof FIG. 29 showing a single electrode sub-unit according to differentembodiments of the present disclosure that include supplemental spacers.

FIG. 35 illustrates an electrode sub-unit including spacer members beingstacked according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

DEFINITIONS

“A,” “an,” and “the” (i.e., singular forms) as used herein refer toplural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Forexample, in one instance, reference to “an electrode” includes both asingle electrode and a plurality of similar electrodes.

“About” and “approximately” as used herein refers to plus or minus 10%,5%, or 1% of the value stated. For example, in one instance, about 250μm would include 225 μm to 275 μm. By way of further example, in oneinstance, about 1,000 μm would include 900 μm to 1,100 μm. Unlessotherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities (e.g.,measurements, and the like) and so forth used in the specification andclaims are to be understood as being modified in all instances by theterm “about.” Accordingly, unless indicated to the contrary, thenumerical parameters set forth in the following specification andattached claims are approximations. Each numerical parameter should atleast be construed in light of the number of reported significant digitsand by applying ordinary rounding techniques.

“Anode” as used herein in the context of a secondary battery refers tothe negative electrode in the secondary battery.

“Anode material” or “Anodically active” as used herein means materialsuitable for use as the negative electrode of a secondary battery

“Cathode” as used herein in the context of a secondary battery refers tothe positive electrode in the secondary battery

“Cathode material” or “Cathodically active” as used herein meansmaterial suitable for use as the positive electrode of a secondarybattery.

“Conversion chemistry active material” or “Conversion chemistrymaterial” refers to a material that undergoes a chemical reaction duringthe charging and discharging cycles of a secondary battery.

“Counter electrode” as used herein may refer to the negative or positiveelectrode (anode or cathode), opposite of the Electrode, of a secondarybattery unless the context clearly indicates otherwise.

“Cycle” as used herein in the context of cycling of a secondary batterybetween charged and discharged states refers to charging and/ordischarging a battery to move the battery in a cycle from a first statethat is either a charged or discharged state, to a second state that isthe opposite of the first state (i.e., a charged state if the firststate was discharged, or a discharged state if the first state wascharged), and then moving the battery back to the first state tocomplete the cycle. For example, a single cycle of the secondary batterybetween charged and discharged states can include, as in a charge cycle,charging the battery from a discharged state to a charged state, andthen discharging back to the discharged state, to complete the cycle.The single cycle can also include, as in a discharge cycle, dischargingthe battery from the charged state to the discharged state, and thencharging back to a charged state, to complete the cycle.

“Electrochemically active material” as used herein means anodicallyactive or cathodically active material.

“Electrode” as used herein may refer to the negative or positiveelectrode (anode or cathode) of a secondary battery unless the contextclearly indicates otherwise.

“Electrode current collector layer” as used herein may refer to an anode(e.g., negative) current collector layer or a cathode (e.g., positive)current collector layer.

“Electrode material” as used herein may refer to anode material orcathode material unless the context clearly indicates otherwise.

“Electrode structure” as used herein may refer to an anode structure(e.g., negative electrode structure) or a cathode structure (e.g.,positive electrode structure) adapted for use in a battery unless thecontext clearly indicates otherwise.

“Longitudinal axis,” “transverse axis,” and “vertical axis,” as usedherein refer to mutually perpendicular axes (i.e., each are orthogonalto one another). For example, the “longitudinal axis,” “transverseaxis,” and the “vertical axis” as used herein are akin to a Cartesiancoordinate system used to define three-dimensional aspects ororientations. As such, the descriptions of elements of the disclosedsubject matter herein are not limited to the particular axis or axesused to describe three-dimensional orientations of the elements.Alternatively stated, the axes may be interchangeable when referring tothree-dimensional aspects of the disclosed subject matter. “Weakenedregion” refers to a portion of the web that has undergone a processingoperation such as scoring, cutting, perforation or the like such thatthe local rupture strength of the weakened region is lower than therupture strength of a non-weakened region.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Embodiments of the present disclosure relate to apparatuses, systems andmethods for the production of electrode components for batteries, suchas three-dimensional secondary batteries that improve the speed ofmanufacture of the battery components, while retaining or improvingbattery capacity and battery longevity, and reducing the occurrences ofdefects during the manufacturing process.

An exemplary system for the production of electrode components,including electrodes and separators, for use in batteries will bedescribed with reference to FIG. 2 . The electrode production (ormanufacturing) system, indicated generally at 100, includes a number ofdiscrete stations, systems, components, or apparatuses that function toenable the efficient production of precision electrodes for use inbatteries. The production system 100 is described first generally, withrespect to FIG. 2 , and subsequently additional detail of each componentis then further described after the broader production system 100 isintroduced.

In the illustrated exemplary embodiment, the production system 100includes a base unwind roller 102 for holding and unwinding a web ofbase material 104. The web of base material 104 may be a web ofelectrode material (i.e., a web of anode material or a web of cathodematerial), separator material or the like suitable for the production ofan electrode assembly for a secondary battery. The web of base material104 is a thin sheet of material that has been wound into the form of aroll, having a center through hole sized for placement on the baseunwind roller 102. In some embodiments, the web of base material 104 isa multi-layer material including, for example, an electrode currentcollector layer (i.e., an anode current collector layer or a cathodecurrent collector layer), and an electrochemically active material layer(i.e., a layer of anodically active material or a layer of cathodicallyactive material) on at least one major surface thereof, and in otherembodiments the web of base material may be a single layer (e.g., a webof separator material). The base unwind roller 102 may be formed frommetal, metal alloy, composite, plastic or any other material that allowsthe production system 100 to function as described herein. In oneembodiment, the unwind roller 102 is made of stainless steel and has adiameter of 3 inches (76.2 mm).

As seen in the embodiment of FIG. 2 , the web of base material 104 ispassed across an edge guide 106, to facilitate unwinding of the web ofbase material 104. In one embodiment, the edge guide 106 uses athrough-beam type optical sensor to detect the position of one edge ofthe web of base material 104 relative to a fixed reference point.Feedback is sent from the edge guide 106 to a “web steering” roller,generally the unwind roller 102, which will move in a directionperpendicular to the direction of travel of the web of base material104. In this embodiment, the web of base material 104 then passes aroundan idler 108 a and into a splicing station 110. The idler 108 a (alsomay be referred to as an idle roller) facilitates maintaining properpositioning and tension of the web of base material 104, as well as tochange the direction of the web of base material 104. In the embodimentshown in FIG. 2 , the idler 108 a receives the web of base material 104in a vertical direction, and is partially wrapped around the idler 108 asuch that the web of base material 104 leaves the idler 108 a in anoutput direction substantially ninety degrees from the input direction.However, it should be appreciated that the input and output directionsmay vary without departing from the scope of this disclosure. In someembodiments, the production system 100 may use multiple idlers 108 a-108x to change the direction of the web of base material one or more timesas it is conveyed through the production system 100. The idlers 108a-108 x may be formed from metal, metal alloy, composite, plastic,rubber or any other material that allows the production system 100 tofunction as described herein. In one embodiment, the idlers 108 a-108 xare made of stainless steel and have dimensions of 1 inch (25.4 mm)diameter×18 inches (457.2 mm) length.

The splicing station 110 is configured to facilitate splicing twoseparate webs together. In one suitable embodiment, as a first web ofbase material 104 is unwound, such that a trailing edge (not shown) ofthe web of base material 104 is stopped within the splicing station 110,a leading edge (not shown) of a second web of base material 104 isunwound into the splicing station 110 such that the trailing edge of thefirst web and the leading edge of the second web are adjacent oneanother. The user may then apply an adhesive, such as an adhesive tape,to join the leading edge of the second web to the trailing edge of thefirst web to form a seam between the two webs and create a continuousweb of base material. Such process may be repeated for numerous webs ofbase material 104, as dictated by a user. Thus, the splicing station 110allows for the possibility of having multiple webs of base materialbeing spliced together to form one continuous web. It should beappreciated that in other embodiments, a user may splice webs of thesame, or different, materials together if desired.

In one suitable embodiment, upon exiting the splicing station 110, theweb of base material 104 is then conveyed in the down-web direction WDsuch that it may enter a nip roller 112. The nip roller 112 isconfigured to facilitate controlling the speed at which the web of basematerial 104 is conveyed through the production system 100. In oneembodiment, the nip roller 112 includes at least two adjacent rollershaving a space therebetween defining a nip. The nip is sized such thatthe web of base material 104 is pressed against each of the two adjacentrollers 114, with enough pressure to allow friction of the rollers tomove the web of base material 104, but a low enough pressure to avoidany significant deformation or damage to the web of base material 104.In some suitable embodiments, the pressure exerted against the web ofbase material 104 by adjacent rollers 114 (e.g., nip rollers) is setbetween 0 to 210 pounds of force across the cross-web span of the webS_(W) (i.e., the edge to edge distance of the web in the cross-webdirection XWD) (FIGS. 6, 8A) of base material 104 in the cross webdirection XWD, such as 0 lb, 5 lb, 10 lb, 15 lb, 20 lb, 25 lb, 30 lb, 35lb, 40 lb, 45 lb, 50 lb, 55 lb, 60 lb, lb, 70 lb, 75 lb, 80 lb, 85 lb,90 lb, 95 lb, 100 lb, 110 lb, 120 lb, 130 lb, 140 lb, 150 lb, 160 lb,170 lb, 180 lb, 190 lb, 200 lb, or 210 lb of force.

In one suitable embodiment, at least one of the adjacent rollers 114 isa compliant roller which may be a high friction roller driven by anelectric motor, and another of the adjacent rollers is a low frictionpassive roller. The compliant roller may have at least an exteriorsurface made from rubber or polymer capable of providing sufficient gripon the web of base material 104 to provide a pushing or pulling force onthe web of base material 104 to convey it through the production system100. In one embodiment, at least one of the adjacent rollers 114 is asteel roller having a diameter of about 3.863 inches (98.12 mm). Inanother embodiment, at least one of the adjacent rollers 114 is a rubberroller having a diameter of about 2.54 inches (64.51 mm). In yet anotherembodiment, one or more of the adjacent rollers 114 include a rubberring placed thereon which may be adjusted for placement at any locationalong the width of the roller, each ring having an outer diameter ofabout 3.90 inches (99.06 mm). In one embodiment, one or more rubberrings are placed on the rollers to contact the web of base material 104at a continuous outer edge thereof to drive the web of base material 104in the down-web direction WD. Accordingly, the speed of the web of basematerial 104 is controlled by controlling the rate of rotation of thehigh friction roller via a user interface 116. In embodiments, the speedof the web in the web direction is controlled to be from 0.001 m/s to 10m/s. In embodiments, the maximum speed of the web in the web directionWD is dictated by the inertia of the web and system components, suchthat the web maintains proper alignment, flatness and tensioning asfurther described herein. In other embodiments, each of the adjacentrollers 114 may be made from any high friction or low friction material,that allows the production system 100 to function as described herein.It should be appreciated that either or both of the adjacent rollers 114may be connected to a motor (not shown) for controlling the speed of theweb of base material 104 passing through the nip. The production system100 may include one or more additional nip rollers 122, 132 tofacilitate control of the speed of the web of base material 104 conveyedthrough the production system 100, which may be controlled via the userinterface 116. When multiple nip rollers are used, each of the niprollers may be set via the user interface 116 to the same speed suchthat the web of base material 104 is conveyed smoothly throughproduction system 100. In embodiments, the speed of the web of basematerial 104 in the web direction WD is controlled to be from 0.001 m/sto 10 m/s.

The production system 100 may also include a dancer 118. As seen in FIG.2 , the illustrated dancer 118 includes a pair of rollers spaced apartfrom one another, but connected about a central axis between the pair ofrollers of the dancer 118. The pair of rollers of the dancer 118 mayrotate about the central axis, thereby passively adjusting the tensionon the web of base material 104. For example, if the tension on the webof base material 104 exceeds a predetermined threshold, the pair ofrollers of the dancer 118 rotate about the central axis to reduce thetension on the web. Accordingly, the dancer 118 may use the mass of thedancer alone (e.g., the mass of one or more of the pair of rollers), aspring, torsion rod or other biasing/tensioning device which may be useradjustable or controllable via user interface 116, to ensure a propertension is consistently maintained on the web of base material. In oneembodiment, the mass of the dancer 118 and inertia of the dancer arereduced or minimized to allow for web tension at or below 500 gramforce, for example by using hollow rollers made of aluminum. In otherembodiments, the rollers of the dancer 118 are made of other lightweightmaterials such as carbon fiber, aluminum alloys, magnesium, otherlightweight metals and metal alloys, fiberglass or any other suitablematerial that allows for a mass low enough to provide a web tension ator below 500 gram force. In yet another embodiment, the rollers of thedancer 118 are counterbalanced to allow a tension in the web of basematerial 104 of 250 gram force or less.

The production system 100 includes one or more laser systems 120 a, 120b, 120 c. The embodiment shown in FIG. 2 includes three laser systems120 a-c, but it should be appreciated that any number of laser systemsmay be used to allow the production system 100 to function as describedherein. Further description of the laser systems 120 a-c is made withreference to FIG. 3 . In one suitable embodiment, at least one of thelaser systems 120 a-c includes a laser device 300 configured to emit alaser beam 302 toward a cutting plenum 304 (FIG. 3 ). In the illustratedembodiment, the cutting plenum 304 includes a chuck 306 and a vacuum308. Details of the chuck 306 are best shown in FIGS. 4 and 13 , whichare further described below. In one suitable embodiment and asillustrated in FIG. 3 , adjacent the laser system 120, are one or moreinspection devices 310, 312, which may be visual inspection devices suchas a camera or any other suitable inspection system which allows theproduction system 100 to function as further described herein.

The exemplary production system 100 illustrated in FIG. 2 includes oneor more cleaning stations such as a brushing station 124 and an airknife 126. Each cleaning station is configured to remove or otherwisefacilitate removal of debris (not shown) from the web of base material104, as described further herein.

The production system 100 of FIG. 2 includes an inspection system 128 toidentify defects and an associated defect marking device 130 to mark theweb of base material 104 to identify locations of identified defects, asdescribed further herein.

In one suitable embodiment, the web of base material 104 is rewound viaa rewind roller 134 together with a web of interleaf material 138, whichis unwound via interleaf roller 136 to create a roll of electrodes 140with layers of the electrodes separated by interleaf material 138. Insome embodiments, the web of base material 104 can be rewound via therewind roller 134 without the web of interleaf material 138.

It should be noted that the series of nip rollers 112, 122, 132, idlers108 a-x, and dancers 118 a-x may be together referred to as a conveyingsystem for conveying the web of base material 104 through the productionsystem 100. As used herein, conveying system or conveying of the web ofbase material 104 refers to intended movement of the web of basematerial 104 through the production system in the web direction WD.

With reference to FIG. 5 , the web of base material 104 may be anymaterial suitable for the production of electrode components for use inbatteries as described herein. For example, web of base material 104 maybe an electrically insulating separator layer 500, an anode material 502or a cathode material 504. In one suitable embodiment, the web of basematerial 104 is an electrically insulating and ionically permeablepolymeric woven material suitable for use as a separator in a secondarybattery.

In another suitable embodiment and with reference still to FIG. 5 , theweb of base material 104 is a web of anode material 502, which mayinclude an anode current collector layer 506 and an anodically activematerial layer 508. The anode current collector layer 506 may comprise aconductive metal such as copper, copper alloys or any other materialsuitable as an anode current collector layer. The anodically activematerial layer 508 may be formed as a first layer on a first surface ofthe anode current collector layer 506 and a second layer on a secondopposing surface of the anode current collector layer 506. In anotherembodiment, the anode current collector layer 506 and anodically activematerial layer 508 may be intermixed. The first surface and the secondopposing surface may be referred to as major surfaces, or front and backsurfaces, of the web of base material 104. A major surface, as usedherein, refers to the surfaces defined by the plane formed by the lengthof the web of base material in the down-web direction WD and the span ofthe web of base material 104 in the cross-web direction XWD.

In general, when the web of base material 104 is a web of anodematerial, the anodically active material layer(s) thereof will (each)have a thickness of at least about 10 um. For example, in oneembodiment, the anodically active material layer(s) will (each) have athickness of at least about 40 um. By way of further example, in onesuch embodiment, the anodically active material layer(s) will (each)have a thickness of at least about 80 um. By way of further example, inone such embodiment, the anodically active material layers will (each)have a thickness of at least about 120 um. Typically, however, theanodically active material layer(s) will (each) have a thickness of lessthan about 60 um or even less than about 30 um.

In general, the negative electrode active material may be selected fromthe group consisting of: (a) silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn),lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), aluminum (Al),titanium (Ti), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), and cadmium (Cd); (b) alloys orintermetallic compounds of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Ni, Co,or Cd with other elements; (c) oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides,phosphides, selenides, and tellurides of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al,Ti, Fe, Ni, Co, V, or Cd, and their mixtures, composites, orlithium-containing composites; (d) salts and hydroxides of Sn; (e)lithium titanate, lithium manganate, lithium aluminate,lithium-containing titanium oxide, lithium transition metal oxide,ZnCo₂O₄; (f) particles of graphite and carbon; (g) lithium metal, and(h) combinations thereof.

Exemplary anodically active materials include carbon materials such asgraphite and soft or hard carbons, or graphene (e.g., single-walled ormulti-walled carbon nanotubes), or any of a range of metals,semi-metals, alloys, oxides, nitrides and compounds capable ofintercalating lithium or forming an alloy with lithium. Specificexamples of the metals or semi-metals capable of constituting the anodematerial include graphite, tin, lead, magnesium, aluminum, boron,gallium, silicon, Si/C composites, Si/graphite blends, silicon oxide(SiOx), porous Si, intermetallic Si alloys, indium, zirconium,germanium, bismuth, cadmium, antimony, silver, zinc, arsenic, hafnium,yttrium, lithium, sodium, graphite, carbon, lithium titanate, palladium,and mixtures thereof. In one exemplary embodiment, the anodically activematerial comprises aluminum, tin, or silicon, or an oxide thereof, anitride thereof, a fluoride thereof, or other alloy thereof. In anotherexemplary embodiment, the anodically active material comprises siliconor an alloy or oxide thereof.

In one embodiment, the anodically active material is microstructured toprovide a significant void volume fraction to accommodate volumeexpansion and contraction as lithium ions (or other carrier ions) areincorporated into or leave the negative electrode active material duringcharging and discharging processes. In general, the void volume fractionof (each of) the anodically active material layer(s) is at least 0.1.Typically, however, the void volume fraction of (each of) the anodicallyactive material layer(s) is not greater than 0.8. For example, in oneembodiment, the void volume fraction of (each of) the anodically activematerial layer(s) is about 0.15 to about 0.75. By way of the furtherexample, in one embodiment, the void volume fraction of (each of) theanodically active material layer(s) is about 0.2 to about 0.7. By way ofthe further example, in one embodiment, the void volume fraction of(each of) the anodically active material layer(s) is about 0.25 to about0.6.

Depending upon the composition of the microstructured anodically activematerial and the method of its formation, the microstructured anodicallyactive material may comprise macroporous, microporous, or mesoporousmaterial layers or a combination thereof, such as a combination ofmicroporous and mesoporous, or a combination of mesoporous andmacroporous. Microporous material is typically characterized by a poredimension of less than 10 nm, a wall dimension of less than 10 nm, apore depth of 1-50 micrometers, and a pore morphology that is generallycharacterized by a “spongy” and irregular appearance, walls that are notsmooth, and branched pores. Mesoporous material is typicallycharacterized by a pore dimension of 10-50 nm, a wall dimension of 10-50nm, a pore depth of 1-100 micrometers, and a pore morphology that isgenerally characterized by branched pores that are somewhat well definedor dendritic pores. Macroporous material is typically characterized by apore dimension of greater than 50 nm, a wall dimension of greater than50 nm, a pore depth of 1-500 micrometers, and a pore morphology that maybe varied, straight, branched, or dendritic, and smooth or rough-walled.Additionally, the void volume may comprise open or closed voids, or acombination thereof. In one embodiment, the void volume comprises openvoids, that is, the negative electrode active material contains voidshaving openings at the lateral surface of the negative electrode activematerial through which lithium ions (or other carrier ions) can enter orleave the anodically active material; for example, lithium ions mayenter the anodically active material through the void openings afterleaving the cathodically active material. In another embodiment, thevoid volume comprises closed voids, that is, the anodically activematerial contains voids that are enclosed by anodically active material.In general, open voids can provide greater interfacial surface area forthe carrier ions whereas closed voids tend to be less susceptible tosolid electrolyte interface while each provides room for expansion ofthe anodically active material upon the entry of carrier ions. Incertain embodiments, therefore, it is preferred that the anodicallyactive material comprise a combination of open and closed voids.

In one embodiment, the anodically active material comprises porousaluminum, tin or silicon or an alloy, an oxide, or a nitride thereof.Porous silicon layers may be formed, for example, by anodization, byetching (e.g., by depositing precious metals such as gold, platinum,silver or gold/palladium on the surface of single crystal silicon andetching the surface with a mixture of hydrofluoric acid and hydrogenperoxide), or by other methods known in the art such as patternedchemical etching. Additionally, the porous anodically active materialwill generally have a porosity fraction of at least about 0.1, but lessthan 0.8 and have a thickness of about 1 to about 100 micrometers. Forexample, in one embodiment, the anodically active material comprisesporous silicon, has a thickness of about 5 to about 100 micrometers, andhas a porosity fraction of about 0.15 to about 0.75. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment, the anodically active material comprisesporous silicon, has a thickness of about 10 to about 80 micrometers, andhas a porosity fraction of about 0.15 to about 0.7. By way of furtherexample, in one such embodiment, the anodically active materialcomprises porous silicon, has a thickness of about 20 to about 50micrometers, and has a porosity fraction of about 0.25 to about 0.6. Byway of further example, in one embodiment, the anodically activematerial comprises a porous silicon alloy (such as nickel silicide), hasa thickness of about 5 to about 100 micrometers, and has a porosityfraction of about 0.15 to about 0.75.

In another embodiment, the anodically active material layer comprisesfibers of aluminum, tin or silicon, or an alloy thereof. Individualfibers may have a diameter (thickness dimension) of about 5 nm to about10,000 nm and a length generally corresponding to the thickness of theanodically active material. Fibers (nanowires) of silicon may be formed,for example, by chemical vapor deposition or other techniques known inthe art such as vapor liquid solid (VLS) growth and solid liquid solid(SLS) growth. Additionally, the anodically active material willgenerally have a porosity fraction of at least about 0.1, but less than0.8 and have a thickness of about 1 to about 200 micrometers. Forexample, in one embodiment, the anodically active material comprisessilicon nanowires, has a thickness of about 5 to about 100 micrometers,and has a porosity fraction of about 0.15 to about 0.75. By way offurther example, in one embodiment, the anodically active materialcomprises silicon nanowires, has a thickness of about 10 to about 80micrometers, and has a porosity fraction of about 0.15 to about 0.7. Byway of further example, in one such embodiment, the anodically activematerial comprises silicon nanowires, has a thickness of about 20 toabout 50 micrometers, and has a porosity fraction of about 0.25 to about0.6. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the anodically activematerial comprises nanowires of a silicon alloy (such as nickelsilicide), has a thickness of about 5 to about 100 micrometers, and hasa porosity fraction of about 0.15 to about 0.75.

In yet other embodiments, the negative electrode (i.e., the electrode orthe counter-electrode) is coated with a particulate lithium materialselected from the group consisting of stabilized lithium metalparticles, e.g., lithium carbonate-stabilized lithium metal powder,lithium silicate stabilized lithium metal powder, or other source ofstabilized lithium metal powder or ink. The particulate lithium materialmay be applied on the negative electrode active material layer byspraying, loading or otherwise disposing the lithium particulatematerial onto the negative electrode active material layer at a loadingamount of about 0.05 to 5 mg/cm², e.g., about 0.1 to 4 mg/cm², or evenabout 0.5 to 3 mg/cm². The average particle size (D₅₀) of the lithiumparticulate material may be 5 to 200 μm, e.g., about 10 to 100 μm, 20 to80 μm, or even about 30 to 50 μm. The average particle size (D₅₀) may bedefined as a particle size corresponding to 50% in a cumulativevolume-based particle size distribution curve. The average particle size(D₅₀) may be measured, for example, using a laser diffraction method.

In general, the anode current collector will have an electricalconductivity of at least about 10³ Siemens/cm. For example, in one suchembodiment, the anode current collector will have a conductivity of atleast about 10⁴ Siemens/cm. By way of further example, in one suchembodiment, the anode current collector will have a conductivity of atleast about 10⁵ Siemens/cm. Exemplary electrically conductive materialssuitable for use as anode current collectors include metals, such as,copper, nickel, cobalt, titanium, and tungsten, and alloys thereof.

Referring again to FIG. 5 , in another suitable embodiment, the web ofbase material 104 is a web of cathode material 504, which may include acathode current collector layer 510 and a cathodically active materiallayer 512. The cathode current collector layer 510 of the cathodematerial may comprise aluminum, an aluminum alloy, titanium or any othermaterial suitable for use as a cathode current collector layer. Thecathodically active material layer 512 may be formed as a first layer ona first surface of the cathode current collector layer 510 and a secondlayer on a second opposing surface of the cathode current collectorlayer 510. The cathodically active material layer 512 may be coated ontoone or both sides of cathode current collector layer 510. Similarly, thecathodically active material layer 512 may be coated onto one or bothmajor surfaces of cathode current collector layer 510. In anotherembodiment, the cathode current collector layer 510 may be intermixedwith cathodically active material layer 512.

In general, when the web of base material 104 is a web of cathodematerial, the cathodically active material layer(s) thereof will (each)have a thickness of at least about 20 μm. For example, in oneembodiment, the cathodically active material layer(s) will (each) have athickness of at least about 40 μm. By way of further example, in onesuch embodiment the cathodically active material layer(s) will (each)have a thickness of at least about 60 μm. By way of further example, inone such embodiment the cathodically active material layers will (each)have a thickness of at least about 100 μm. Typically, however, thecathodically active material layer(s) will (each) have a thickness ofless than about 90 μm or even less than about 70 μm.

In one embodiment, the positive electrode may comprise, or may be, anintercalation-type chemistry active material, a conversion chemistryactive material, or a combination thereof.

Exemplary conversion chemistry materials useful in the presentdisclosure include, but are not limited to, S (or Li₂S in the lithiatedstate), LiF, Fe, Cu, Ni, FeF₂, FeO_(d)F_(3.2d), FeF₃, CoF₃, CoF₂, CuF₂,NiF₂, where 0≤d≤0.5, and the like.

Exemplary cathodically active materials also include any of a wide rangeof intercalation type cathodically active materials. For example, for alithium-ion battery, the cathodically active material may comprise acathodically active material selected from transition metal oxides,transition metal sulfides, transition metal nitrides, lithium-transitionmetal oxides, lithium-transition metal sulfides, and lithium-transitionmetal nitrides may be selectively used. The transition metal elements ofthese transition metal oxides, transition metal sulfides, and transitionmetal nitrides can include metal elements having a d-shell or f-shell.Specific examples of such metal element are Sc, Y, lanthanoids,actinoids, Ti, Zr, Hf, V, Nb, Ta, Cr, Mo, W, Mn, Tc, Re, Fe, Ru, Os, Co,Rh, Ir, Ni, Pb, Pt, Cu, Ag, and Au. Additional cathode active materialsinclude LiCoO₂, LiNi_(0.5) Mn_(1.5)O₄, Li(Ni_(x)Co_(y)Alz)O₂, LiFePO₄,Li₂MnO₄, V₂O₅, molybdenum oxysulfides, phosphates, silicates, vanadates,sulfur, sulfur compounds, oxygen (air), Li(Ni_(x)Mn_(y)Co_(z))O₂, andcombinations thereof.

In general, the cathode current collector will have an electricalconductivity of at least about 10³ Siemens/cm. For example, in one suchembodiment, the cathode current collector will have a conductivity of atleast about 10⁴ Siemens/cm. By way of further example, in one suchembodiment, the cathode current collector will have a conductivity of atleast about 10⁵ Siemens/cm. Exemplary cathode current collectors includemetals, such as aluminum, nickel, cobalt, titanium, and tungsten, andalloys thereof.

Referring again to FIG. 5 , in another suitable embodiment, the web ofbase material 104 is a web of electrically insulating but ionicallypermeable separator material. Electrically insulating separator layer500 is adapted to electrically isolate each member of the anodepopulation from each member of the cathode population of a secondarybattery. Electrically insulating separator layer 500 will typicallyinclude a microporous separator material that can be permeated with anon-aqueous electrolyte; for example, in one embodiment, the microporousseparator material includes pores having a diameter of at least 50 Å,more typically in the range of about 2,500 Å, and a porosity in therange of about 25% to about 75%, more typically in the range of about35-55%

In general, when the web of base material 104 is a web of electricallyinsulating separator material, the electrically insulating separatormaterial will have a thickness of at least about 4 μm. For example, inone embodiment, the electrically insulating separator material will havea thickness of at least about 8 um. By way of further example, in onesuch embodiment the electrically insulating separator material will havea thickness of at least about 12 μm. By way of further example, in onesuch embodiment the electrically insulating separator material will havea thickness of at least about 15 μm. Typically, however, theelectrically insulating separator material will have a thickness of lessthan about 12 μm or even less than about 10 μm.

In general, the separator may be selected from a wide range ofseparators having the capacity to conduct carrier ions between thepositive and negative active material of a unit cell. For example, theseparator may comprise a microporous separator material that may bepermeated with a liquid, nonaqueous electrolyte. Alternatively, theseparator may comprise a gel or solid electrolyte capable of conductingcarrier ions between the positive and negative electrodes of a unitcell.

In one embodiment, the separator may comprise a polymer basedelectrolyte. Exemplary polymer electrolytes include PEO-based polymerelectrolytes, polymer-ceramic composite electrolytes, polymer-ceramiccomposite electrolytes, and polymer-ceramic composite electrolyte.

In another embodiment, the separator may comprise an oxide basedelectrolyte. Exemplary oxide-based electrolytes include lithiumlanthanum titanate (Li_(0.34)La_(0.56)TiO₃), Al-doped lithium lanthanumzirconate (Li_(6.24)La₃Zr₂Al_(0.24)O_(11.98)), Ta-doped lithiumlanthanum zirconate (Li_(6.4)La₃Zr_(1.4)Ta_(0.6)O₁₂) and lithiumaluminum titanium phosphate (Li_(1.4)Al_(0.4)Ti_(1.6)(PO₄)₃).

In another embodiment, the separator may comprise a solid electrolyte.Exemplary solid electrolytes include sulfide based electrolytes such aslithium tin phosphorus sulfide (Li₁₀SnP₂S₁₂), lithium phosphorus sulfide(β-Li₃PS₄) and lithium phosphorus sulfur chloride iodide(Li₆PS₅Cl_(0.9)I_(0.1)).

In one embodiment, the separator comprises a microporous separatormaterial comprising a particulate material and a binder, and having aporosity (void fraction) of at least about 20 vol. %. The pores of themicroporous separator material will have a diameter of at least 50 Å andwill typically fall within the range of about 250 to 2,500 Å. Themicroporous separator material will typically have a porosity of lessthan about 75%. In one embodiment, the microporous separator materialhas a porosity (void fraction) of at least about 25 vol %. In oneembodiment, the microporous separator material will have a porosity ofabout 35-55%.

The binder for the microporous separator material may be selected from awide range of inorganic or polymeric materials. For example, in oneembodiment, the binder is an organic material selected from the groupconsisting of silicates, phosphates, aluminates, aluminosilicates, andhydroxides such as magnesium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, etc. Forexample, in one embodiment, the binder is a fluoropolymer derived frommonomers containing vinylidene fluoride, hexafluoropropylene,tetrafluoropropene, and the like. In another embodiment, the binder is apolyolefin such as polyethylene, polypropylene, or polybutene, havingany of a range of varying molecular weights and densities. In anotherembodiment, the binder is selected from the group consisting ofethylene-diene-propene terpolymer, polystyrene, polymethyl methacrylate,polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl butyral, polyacetal,and polyethyleneglycol diacrylate. In another embodiment, the binder isselected from the group consisting of methyl cellulose, carboxymethylcellulose, styrene rubber, butadiene rubber, styrene-butadiene rubber,isoprene rubber, polyacrylamide, polyvinyl ether, polyacrylic acid,polymethacrylic acid, and polyethylene oxide. In another embodiment, thebinder is selected from the group consisting of acrylates, styrenes,epoxies, and silicones. In another embodiment, the binder is a copolymeror blend of two or more of the aforementioned polymers.

The particulate material comprised by the microporous separator materialmay also be selected from a wide range of materials. In general, suchmaterials have a relatively low electronic and ionic conductivity atoperating temperatures and do not corrode under the operating voltagesof the battery electrode or current collector contacting the microporousseparator material. For example, in one embodiment, the particulatematerial has a conductivity for carrier ions (e.g., lithium) of lessthan 1×10⁻⁴ S/cm. By way of further example, in one embodiment, theparticulate material has a conductivity for carrier ions of less than1×10⁻⁵ S/cm. By way of further example, in one embodiment, theparticulate material has a conductivity for carrier ions of less than1×10⁻⁶ S/cm. Exemplary particulate materials include particulatepolyethylene, polypropylene, a TiO₂-polymer composite, silica aerogel,fumed silica, silica gel, silica hydrogel, silica xerogel, silica sol,colloidal silica, alumina, titanic, magnesia, kaolin, talc, diatomaceousearth, calcium silicate, aluminum silicate, calcium carbonate, magnesiumcarbonate, or a combination thereof. For example, in one embodiment, theparticulate material comprises a particulate oxide or nitride such asTiO₂, SiO₂, Al₂O₃, GeO₂, B₂O₃, Bi₂O₃, BaO, ZnO, ZrO₂, BN, Si₃N₄, Ge₃N₄.See, for example, P. Arora and J. Zhang, “Battery Separators” ChemicalReviews 2004, 104, 4419-4462). In one embodiment, the particulatematerial will have an average particle size of about 20 nm to 2micrometers, more typically 200 nm to 1.5 micrometers. In oneembodiment, the particulate material will have an average particle sizeof about 500 nm to 1 micrometer.

In an alternative embodiment, the particulate material comprised by themicroporous separator material may be bound by techniques such assintering, binding, curing, etc. while maintaining the void fractiondesired for electrolyte ingress to provide the ionic conductivity forthe functioning of the battery.

In an assembled energy storage device, the microporous separatormaterial is permeated with a non-aqueous electrolyte suitable for use asa secondary battery electrolyte. Typically, the non-aqueous electrolytecomprises a lithium salt and/or mixture of salts dissolved in an organicsolvent and/or solvent mixture. Exemplary lithium salts includeinorganic lithium salts such as LiClO₄, LiBF₄, LiPF₆, LiAsF₆, LiCl, andLiBr; and organic lithium salts such as LiB(C₆H₅)₄, LiN(SO₂CF₃)₂,LiN(SO₂CF₃)₃, LiNSO₂CF₃, LiNSO₂CF₅, LiNSO₂C₄F₉, LiNSO₂C₅F₁₁,LiNSO₂C₆F₁₃, and LiNSO₂C₇F₁₅. Exemplary organic solvents to dissolve thelithium salt include cyclic esters, chain esters, cyclic ethers, andchain ethers. Specific examples of the cyclic esters include propylenecarbonate, butylene carbonate, γ-butyrolactone, vinylene carbonate,2-methyl-γ-butyrolactone, acetyl-γ-butyrolactone, and γ-valerolactone.Specific examples of the chain esters include dimethyl carbonate,diethyl carbonate, dibutyl carbonate, dipropyl carbonate, methyl ethylcarbonate, methyl butyl carbonate, methyl propyl carbonate, ethyl butylcarbonate, ethyl propyl carbonate, butyl propyl carbonate, alkylpropionates, dialkyl malonates, and alkyl acetates. Specific examples ofthe cyclic ethers include tetrahydrofuran, alkyltetrahydrofurans,dialkyltetrahydrofurans, alkoxytetrahydrofurans,dialkoxytetrahydrofurans, 1,3-dioxolane, alkyl-1,3-dioxolanes, and1,4-dioxolane. Specific examples of the chain ethers include1,2-dimethoxyethane, 1,2-diethoxythane, diethyl ether, ethylene glycoldialkyl ethers, diethylene glycol dialkyl ethers, triethylene glycoldialkyl ethers, and tetraethylene glycol dialkyl ethers.

In one embodiment, the microporous separator may be permeated with anon-aqueous, organic electrolyte including a mixture of a lithium saltand a high-purity organic solvent. In addition, the electrolyte may be apolymer using a polymer electrolyte or a solid electrolyte.

In one embodiment, web of base material 104 may have an adhesive tapelayer (not shown) adhered to one or both surfaces of the anodicallyactive material layer 508, or cathodically active material layer 512,respectively. The adhesive layer may then later be removed subsequent toablation and cutting (described below) to remove unwanted material ordebris.

Embodiments of the laser systems 120 a-c are further described withreference to FIGS. 2-6 . The web of base material 104 enters the lasersystem 120 in the web direction WD. In one embodiment, the web of basematerial 104 enters the laser system 120 a in a first condition 400,having not yet been ablated or cut. Accordingly, the web of basematerial 104 in the first condition 400 should have substantially nodefects or alterations from an initial state. The web of base material104 passes over chuck 306, which includes a plurality of vacuum holes406. The vacuum holes 406 are in fluid connection with vacuum 308, todraw a vacuum pressure on the web of base material 104 passing over thevacuum holes 406. The vacuum holes 406 may be staggered and/or bechamfered to allow the web of base material 104 to more easily passthereover without snagging. The cross-sectional area of the holes mustbe small enough to prevent the web of base material 104 from being drawntherein, but large enough to allow proper airflow from the vacuumtherethrough. The vacuum pressure facilitates maintaining the web ofbase material 104 in a substantially flat/planar state as it is conveyedacross chuck 306. In some suitable embodiments, the laser system 120 issensitive to focus, and in such embodiments it is critical to keep theweb of base material 104 at a substantially constant distance from laseroutput 313, to ensure laser beam 302 is in focus when contacting the webof base material 104 during cutting or ablating processes. Accordingly,the vacuum pressure through vacuum holes 406 may be monitored andadjusted in real time, for example via user interface 116, to ensurethat the web of base material 104 remains substantially flat acrosschuck 306 and does not lift or buckle while being processed. Thecross-sectional shape of the vacuum holes may be circular, square,rectangular, oval or any other shape that allows the chuck 306 tofunction as described herein.

As seen in FIG. 4 , the chuck 306 includes an opening 410 defined by anupstream edge 412 and the downstream edge 414. The illustrated chuck 306includes a chamfer 416 on the downstream edge 414. In this embodiment,the chamfer 416 facilitates the web of base material 104 passing overdownstream edge 414 without having the web of base material 104 catch orsnag on the downstream edge 414. The angle α of the chamfer 416 may bebetween 1 degree and 90 degrees, such as 5 degrees, 10 degrees, 15degrees, 20 degrees, 25 degrees, 30 degrees, 35 degrees, 40 degrees, 45degrees, 50 degrees, 55 degrees, 60 degrees, 65 degrees, 70 degrees, 75degrees, 80 degrees, 85 degrees or any other angle that allows chamfer416 to function as describes herein. It the illustrated embodiment, forexample, the angle α is approximately 25 degrees. It has been found thatperformance is improved if the angle α of the chamfer 416 is greaterthan the deflection of the web of base material 104 passing over thechamfer 416. Upper edge 418 of chamfer 416 may be radiused to provide asmooth transition from the chamfer 416 to the surface of the chuck 306.

In one suitable embodiment, the chuck 306 is formed from aluminum.However, the chuck 306 may be formed from aluminum alloy, composites,metals or metal alloys or any other suitable material that allows chuck306 to function as described herein.

In one suitable embodiment, the web of base material 104 is firstablated by laser beam 302 (FIG. 3 ) to create the ablations 404 (FIG. 4) in the web of base material 104. In one embodiment, the web of basematerial 104 is anode material 502, and the ablations 404 remove theanodically active material layer 508 to expose anode current collectorlayer 506 (FIG. 5 ). In another embodiment, the web of base material 104is cathode material 504, and the ablations 404 remove the cathodicallyactive material layer 512 to expose cathode current collector layer 510.In one embodiment, the ablations 404 are configured as electrode tabs520 (adapted to electrically connect the cathode current collector andthe anode current collector to the positive and negative terminals,respectively, of a secondary battery). When using the laser system 120 ato make the ablations 404 in the web of base material 104, the power ofthe laser beam 302 is set to a level that is capable of substantiallycompletely, or completely, removing the coating layer, but will notdamage or cut through the current collector layer. In use, the laserbeam 302 is controlled, for example via user interface 116, to createthe ablations 404 while the web of base material 104 is in motion andbeing conveyed in down-web direction WD. The ablations 404 are createdon each side of the web of base material 104, as best shown in FIG. 5 .In one embodiment, after making the ablations 404, the laser system 120a forms fiducial features 602, as described further herein. In anotherembodiment, multiple lasers may be used to each ablate a portion of theweb of base material 104 to each create one or more ablations 404 toincrease the throughput of the production system 100.

With further reference to FIGS. 2, 3 and 4 , in another stage of theproduction process, the web of base material 104 is conveyed in thedown-web direction WD toward a cutting area 408 of the laser system 120a. The cutting area 408 includes the opening 410 of chuck 306. In oneembodiment, the opening 410 is in fluid communication with the vacuum308, to draw a vacuum pressure on the web of base material 104 passingover the opening 410. In one suitable embodiment, the opening 410 iswider in a cross-web direction XWD than the web of base material 104,such that an entire width of the web of base material 104 in thecross-web direction XWD is suspended over the opening 410. In oneembodiment, there may be a second vacuum, configured to equalize thepressure on the web of base material 104 opposite the chuck 306. In thisembodiment, the equalization in pressure facilitates maintaining the webof base material 104 in a substantially flat/planar state and at aconsistent height when passing over the opening 410, which facilitatesmaintaining focus of laser beam 302 on the web of base material 104. Inone embodiment, a carrier web may be used to support the web of basematerial 104. In some embodiments, the carrier web is removably attachedto the web of base material using a low tack adhesive or electrostaticpinning. In such embodiments, the attachment has sufficient adhesion toremain attached to the web of base material during processing, but isremovable without causing damage to the web of base material. In oneembodiment, the carrier web is a material that does not absorb the laserwavelength being used during processing of the web of base material 104,such that the carrier web will not be cut through, vaporized or ablated,and accordingly may be reused on other webs of base material.

The laser system 120 a is configured to cut one or more patterns (suchas individual electrode patterns 800 (FIG. 8 ), which may also bereferred to as an electrode tear pattern), each being a member of apopulation of electrode structures, in the web of base material 104while the web of base material is over the opening 410. With referenceto FIG. 6 , the patterns may include one or more lengthwise edge cuts600 that define lengthwise edges of an electrode in the cross-webdirection XWD. The lengthwise edge cuts 600 are cut using laser beam 302cutting the web of base material 104 in the cross-web direction XWDwhile the web of base material is conveyed in the down-web direction WD.The cross-web direction XWD is orthogonal to the down-web direction WD.It should be noted that, in one embodiment, in order to createlengthwise edge cuts 600 that are substantially perpendicular to thedown-web direction WD, the laser beam 302 must be controlled to travelat an angle with respect to the down-web direction WD, to account forthe movement of the web of base material in the 104 in the down-webdirection WD. For example, as the web of base material 104 moves in thedown-web direction WD, the path of the laser beam 302 is projected ontothe web of base material 104 at an initial cut location 604, and then issynchronized with the motion of the web of base material 104 in the webdirection. Accordingly, the path of laser beam 302 is controlled totravel in both the cross-web direction XWD and the down-web direction WDuntil reaching end cut location 606 to create the lengthwise edge cuts600. In this embodiment, a compensation factor is applied to the path ofthe laser beam 302 to allow cuts to be made in the cross-web directionXWD while the web of base material is continuously traveling in the webdirection WD. It should be appreciated that the angle at which the laserbeam 302 travels varies based upon the speed of the web of base material104 in the down-web direction WD. In another embodiment, the web of basematerial 104 is temporarily stopped during the laser processingoperation, and as such, the path of the laser beam 302 does not need toaccount for the motion of the travel of the web of base material in thedown-web direction WD. Such embodiment, may be referred to as a stepprocess, or step and repeat process. During laser processing, one ormore of the laser systems 120 a-c use a repeating alignment feature,such as fiducial features 602 to adjust/align the laser beam 302 duringthe laser processing operations, for example to compensate for possiblevariations in positioning of the web of base material 104.

It should be appreciated that, although the laser processing operationsas described herein such that the lengthwise edge cuts 600 are definedin the cross-web direction XWD, such that repeating patterns ofelectrode patterns are aligned in the cross-web direction XWD, in otherembodiments, the laser processing operations described herein can becontrolled such that the lengthwise edge cuts 600, and all associatedcuts, perforations and ablation operations are oriented respectivelyperpendicular. For example, lengthwise edge cuts 600 can be aligned inthe down-web direction WD, such that populations of electrode patterns800 are aligned in the down-web direction WD, rather than the cross-webdirection XWD.

In one embodiment, laser system 120 a cuts a tie bar 614 between one ormore of the electrode patterns. The tie bar 614 may be used to delineatebetween groups of the electrode patterns. For example, in the embodimentshown in FIG. 6 , a tie bar 614 is cut between groups of five individualelectrode patterns. However, in other embodiments the tie bar 614 may beincluded after any number of individual electrode patterns, or notpresent at all. The tie bar is defined by an upstream and downstream tiebar edge cut 616, 618 respectively. In some embodiments, the tie bar 614is sized to provide additional structural stiffness to the web duringprocessing.

In addition, in one suitable embodiment, the laser system 120 a cuts oneor more of the repeating alignment features such as a plurality of thefiducial features 602 in the web of base material 104. In oneembodiment, the fiducial features 602 are fiducial through-holes. Thefiducial features 602 are cut at a known location on the web of basematerial 104. The fiducial features 602 are shown as circular in FIG. 6, but may be rectangular as shown in FIG. 5 , or any size or shape thatallows the production system 100 to function as described herein. Thefiducial features 602 are tracked by one or more of visual inspectionsystems 310, 312 which measures the location and speed of travel. Themeasurement of the fiducial features 602 is then used to accuratelyallow for front to back alignment of the patterns on the web of basematerial 104 in both the down-web direction WD and cross-web directionXWD. The laser system 120 a may also cut a plurality of tractor holes612 that may be used for alignment of the web of base material 104, ormay be used as holes that engage with a gear wheel 1210 (FIG. 12 ) for,conveying, positioning and tension control of the web of base material104. Tractor holes 612 may be circular, square or any other shape thatallows the production system 100 to function as described herein. Inanother suitable embodiment, the web of base material 104 has theplurality of tractor holes 612 and/or fiducial features 602 pre-cuttherein prior to being unwound and conveyed through production system100. In one embodiment, there is a one-to-one ratio of fiducial features602 to electrode patterns 800. In other embodiments, there may be two ormore fiducial features per each electrode pattern 800.

With reference to FIGS. 2 and 6 , in one suitable embodiment, the lasersystem 120 a cuts a first perforation 608 and a second perforation 610in the web of base material 104 as part of the electrode pattern. Thefirst perforation 608 may also be referred to as the “outer perforation”because it lies at the outside of the electrode pattern in the cross-webdirection XWD, and the second perforation 610 may also be referred to asthe “inner perforation” because it lies inboard of the outer perforationin the cross-web direction XWD. The perforations 608, 610 are best shownin FIG. 7 , which is an enlarged view of the portion 611 (FIG. 6 ) ofweb of base material 104. First perforation 608 is formed by lasercutting using laser beam 302, while the web of base material ispositioned over the opening 410 in chuck 306. The first perforation 608is formed as a linear slit (e.g., through-cut) in a direction alignedwith the down-web direction WD. Importantly, the first perforation 608does not extend across the entirety of the width of the electrode W e.Instead, outer tear strips 700 remain on both the upstream anddownstream edges of the perforation 608, to ensure the electrode patternremains connected to the web of base material 104.

Similarly, with further reference to FIGS. 6 and 7 , the secondperforations 610 are formed inboard (in the cross-web direction XWD)from the first perforations 608. In one suitable embodiment, the secondperforations 610 are formed as a line of slits in the down-web directionWD separated by inner tear strips 702. In the embodiment shown, thesecond perforations 610 intersect through holes 704. In the illustratedembodiment, the inner tear strips 702 are at least two times the lengthof outer tear strips 700, such that the rupture force required toseparate the outer tear strips is approximately half of the ruptureforce required to separate inner tear strips 702 from the web of basematerial 104. In other embodiments, the ratio of the rupture strength ofthe first and second tear strips may vary, but is preferred that theouter tear strips 700 have a rupture strength lower than the inner tearstrips 702, such that upon application of a tensile, or shear, forceapplied to the edges of the web of base material 104, that the outertear strips 700 will rupture before inner tear strips 702.

With reference to FIGS. 3, 4 and 6 , by performing the laser cuts forthe lengthwise edge cuts 600, the fiducial features 602, and the firstand second perforations 608, 610 over the opening 410 of the chuck 306,it allows debris to fall through the opening 410 and also allows thevacuum 308 to collect debris formed during the laser cutting process.

In one suitable embodiment, the laser system 120 a is configured as afirst ablation station. In this embodiment, the laser system 120 a formsthe ablations 404, as described above on a first surface of the web ofbase material 104. Upon exiting laser system 120 a, the web of basematerial passes over idler 108 d which flips the web of base material104 in a manner such that a second surface (opposing the first surface)of the web of base material is positioned for processing by the lasersystem 120 b, which is configured as a second ablation station in thisembodiment. In this embodiment, the laser system 120 b is configured touse the fiducial features 602 to ensure alignment in the down-webdirection WD and cross-web direction XWD. Accordingly, the laser system120 b performs a second ablation process on the opposing surface of theweb of base material 104, such that ablations 404 on each surface of theweb of base material 104 are aligned in the down-web direction WD andthe cross-web direction XWD. In one embodiment, the ablations 404 areconfigured as current collector tabs of the electrodes.

In one embodiment, the laser system 120 c seen in FIG. 2 is configuredas a laser cutting station. In this embodiment, the laser system 120 cperforms the laser cuts such as lengthwise edge cuts 600, and the firstand second perforations 608 and 610.

In one suitable embodiment, one or more of the laser devices 300 of thelaser systems 120 a-c is 20 watt fiber laser. In embodiments, suitablelaser devices 300 of the laser systems 120 a-c have a laser power withinthe range of from 10 watts to 5,000 watts, such as from 10 W to 100 W,100 W to 250 W, 250 W to 1 kW, 1 kW to 2.5 kW, 2.5 kW to 5 kW. Suitablelaser devices 300 will include a laser beam having a wavelength of from150 nm to 10.6 μm, for example such as from 150 nm to 375 nm, 375 nm to750 nm, 750 nm to 1,500 nm, and 1,500 nm to 10.6 μm. In embodiments, thelaser devices 300 will be capable of laser pulse width types of one ormore of continuous wave (cw), microsecond (μs), nanosecond (ns),picosecond (ps) and femtosecond (fs) pulse types. Any of these types oflasers may be used alone or in combination as laser devices 300 of lasersystems 120 a-c. In other suitable embodiments, the laser device 300 isany other laser capable of allowing laser systems 120 a-c to perform asdescribed herein.

In some embodiments, the web of base material 104 may include fiducialfeatures 602 that have been machine punched, or laser cut, prior tobeing loaded into production system 100. In another suitable embodiment,the fiducial features 602 may be mechanically machine punchedsubsequently to forming ablations 404 on a first surface of the web ofbase material. In other suitable embodiments, the production system 100may include one or more additional mechanical punches which may be usedto form one or more of the lengthwise edge cuts 600, and/or the firstand second perforation 608, 610.

In one embodiment, one or more of the rollers of the conveyor system maynot be perfectly round, such that the roller has an eccentricity. Insuch case, especially if the eccentric roller is a nip roller, the webof base material may be conveyed in a manner such that a position of theweb of base material 104 advances in a manner differently depending uponwhich portion of the eccentric roller is in contact with the web. Forexample, if the eccentric has a portion of the radius that exceeds theexpected radius of the roller, the web may advance further in thedown-web direction WD than expected, when the larger radius portion ofthe roller is pushing/pulling the web. Likewise, if the eccentric rollerhas a reduced radius portion, the web may advance a reduced distance inthe down-web direction WD than expected. Accordingly, in one embodiment,the eccentric roller(s) may be mapped to determine the radius versusradial position. The laser system 120 a-c may then be controlled toadjust the laser beam 302 position to account for the eccentricity basedupon the mapping of the roller(s). In one embodiment, the mapping of therollers may be stored in the memory of the user interface 116.

Upon having exited one or more of laser systems 120 a-c, the web of basematerial may be conveyed to one or more cleaning stations such asbrushing station 124 and air knife 126. In one suitable embodiment, thebrushing station 124 includes a brush 1000 (FIGS. 10 and 11 ) thattravels in the cross-web direction XWD. The brush 1000 includes a set ofbristles 1002 that are held by bristle holder 1004. The brush 1000 isconfigured to allow bristles 1002 to delicately contact a surface of theweb of base material 104 and remove or dislodge any debris therefrom.The contact pressure of the bristles 1002 on the surface of the web ofbase material 104 must be low enough that it does not break, rupture orotherwise cause defects in the electrode patterns, and maintains theelectrode patterns as attached to the web of base material 104. In oneembodiment, the normal force between the bristles 1002 and the surfaceof the web of base material 104 is from 0 to 2 lbs, such as 0.1 lbs, 0.2lbs, 0.3 lbs, 0.4 lbs, 0.5 lbs, 0.6 lbs, 0.7 lbs, 0.8 lbs, 0.9 lbs, 1.0lbs, 1.1 lbs, 1.2 lbs, 1.3 lbs, 1.4 lbs, 1.5 lbs, 1.6 lbs, 1.7 lbs, 1.8lbs, 1.9 lbs or 2.0 lbs. In other embodiments, the normal force may begreater than 2.0 lbs.

In one embodiment, the length of the bristles 1002 is ¾ inch (19.05 mm).In one embodiment, the bristles 1002 are inserted or clamped withinbristle holder 1004 by approximately ⅛ inch. The diameter of thebristles may be from 0.003 inch (0.076 mm) to 0.010 inch (0.254 mm),such as 0.003 inch (0.076), 0.004 inch (0.101 mm), inch (0.127 mm),0.006 inch (0.152 mm), 0.007 inch (0.177 mm), 0.008 inch (0.203 mm),0.009 inch (0.228 mm) and 0.010 inch (0.254 mm). In one suitableembodiment, the bristles 1002 are nylon bristles. However, in otherembodiments the bristles 1002 may be any other natural or syntheticmaterial that allows the brush 1000 to function as described herein.

With further reference to FIGS. 10 and 11 , in one suitable embodiment,to effect movement of the brush 1000 in the cross-web direction XWD, thebrush 1000 is connected to crank arm 1006 via a rotatable coupling 1008,such as a bearing, bushing or the like. The crank arm 1006 is rotatablycoupled to drive wheel 1010 via a second rotatable coupling 1012. Therotatable coupling is coupled to a position off center of the drivewheel 1010, such that the crank arm 1006 oscillates the brush 1000 in aback-and-forth motion in the cross-web direction XWD. The drive wheel1010 is coupled to a motor 1014 to effect rotation of the drive wheel. Aposition sensor 1016 senses the position of a brush position marker1018, which is coupled to the drive wheel 1010. Accordingly, theposition sensor 1016 may measure the phase (e.g., angular position) androtations per time of the drive wheel 1010. In one embodiment, the drivewheel 1010 is controlled to be within a range of 0 to 300 rotations perminute (“rpm”) (e.g., 0 to 300 strokes per minute of brush 1000), suchas 0 rpm, 25 rpm, 50 rpm, rpm, 100 rpm, 125 rpm, 150 rpm, 175 rpm, 200rpm, 225 rpm, 250 rpm, 275 rpm and 300 rpm. In other embodiments, therpm of drive wheel 1010 may be greater than 300 rpm. It is noted that aconstant rpm of drive wheel 1010 will cause a sinusoidal speed variationof brush 1000, due to the crank arm 1006 connection to drive wheel 1010.

In one suitable embodiment, a second brush (not shown) is located in aposition to contact the opposing surface of the web of base material104. In this embodiment, the second brush, which may be substantiallythe same as the first brush 1000 is configured to travel in a directionopposite to the first brush, and suitably 180 degrees out of phase withthe first brush. The phase of the first brush and the second brush maybe determined via the position sensor 1016, and an equivalent positionsensor of the second brush. In this embodiment, the contact pressure ofthe bristles of the first brush and the second brush, together, must below enough that it does not break, rupture or otherwise cause defects inthe electrode patterns, and maintains the electrode patterns as attachedto the web of base material 104.

In one embodiment, the brush 1000 has a bristle width 1022 that is widerin the cross-web direction XWD than the width of web of base material104 in the cross-web direction XWD. For example, in one embodiment, thebristle width 1022 is of sufficient width that as the brush 1000oscillates in the cross-web direction XWD, the bristles 1002 remain incontact with the surface of the web of base material 104 throughout theentire range of motion of the brush 1000. The rate of oscillation of thebrush 1000 and the pressure exerted by the bristles 1002 against thesurface of the web of base material 104 may be controlled by the userusing the user interface 116.

The brushing station 124 may be equipped with a vacuum system configuredto create a vacuum through brush station orifices 1020 to evacuatedebris that has been brushed from one or more surfaces of the web ofbase material 104. In this embodiment, the debris may be brushed fromthe web of base material 104 and fall, or be suctioned through the brushstation orifices 1020. The brush station orifices 1020 are illustratedas being round, but may be any shape that allows brushing station 124 tofunction as described herein. Further, the upper edges of the brushstation orifices 1020 may be chamfered, and/or staggered in position toallow the web of base material 104 to more easily pass over them withouthaving an edge of the web of base material get snagged thereon. In oneembodiment, the vacuum level may be controlled to be from 0 to 140inches H₂O, such as 0 in H₂O, 10 in H₂O, 20 in H₂O, 30 in H₂O, 40 inH₂O, 50 in H₂O, 60 in H₂O, 70 in H₂O, 80 in H₂O, 90 in H₂O, 100 in H₂O,110 in H₂O, 120 in H₂O, 130 in H₂O, and 140 in H₂O. In some embodiments,the flow rate of the vacuum is controlled to be from about 0 to 425cubic feet per minute (“cfm”), such as 0 cfm, 25 cfm, 50 cfm, 75 cfm,100 cfm, 125 cfm, 150 cfm, 175 cfm, 200 cfm, 225 cfm, 250 cfm, 275 cfm,300 cfm, 325 cfm, 350 cfm, 375 cfm, 400 cfm and 425 cfm. In otherembodiments, the vacuum level and flow rate may be greater than 140 inH₂O and 425 cfm, respectively. The vacuum level and flow rate arecontrolled to be within a range such that debris is pulled away from theweb of base material 104 without creating unnecessary friction betweenthe web of base material 104 and the conveying system components. Suchvacuum levels and flow rates are, in some embodiments, applicable to allother components of the system using a vacuum.

In another suitable embodiment, one or more of the first brush and thesecond brush may include a load sensor that measures or monitors thepressure the brush is exerting upon the web of electrode material 802.As shown in FIG. 8 , the web of electrode material 802 refers to the webafter having been processed as described herein, such that a populationof electrode patterns 800 have been formed therein. In this embodiment,the first brush and the second brush may be controlled, via userinterface 116, to maintain a uniform brushing pressure on the web ofelectrode material 802 based upon variations in brush bristle wear orelectrode thickness or surface roughness.

In another suitable embodiment, one or more of the first brush and thesecond brush are configured to move at least partially in the down-webdirection WD at a rate of speed equivalent to the rate of speed of theweb of electrode material 802, thus maintaining a substantially zerospeed differential between the brush and the web of electrode material802 in the down-web direction WD.

In yet another suitable embodiment, the brushing station 124 may beequipped with a phase measurement sensor 1016 to determine the phase ofthe first brush and the second brush. In one such embodiment, the phasesensor may measure the location of a home sensor flag 1018 of the firstbrush and the second brush. In this embodiment, the phase measurementsensor 1016 determines whether the first and second brushes are within arange of predetermined phase difference, such as 180 degrees out ofphase, 90 degrees out of phase or zero degrees out of phase or any othersuitable phase difference that allows the production system 100 tofunction as described herein. As used herein, the “phase” of a brushrefers to an angular position of a brush, such that the bristles of twoseparate brushes would be aligned when “in phase.”

In still another embodiment, an ultrasonic transducer (not shown) may beconfigured to impart ultrasonic vibrations to one or more of the firstand second brushes to facilitate debris removal from the web ofelectrode material 802.

With further reference to FIG. 2 , in one suitable embodiment, the webof base material 104 is conveyed through an air knife 126. As usedherein, the term air knife refers to a device that uses high pressureair that is blown at the web of base material 104. The high pressure aircontacts the surface of the web of base material 104 and removes debristherefrom. The air knife 126 is controlled to supply air at apressure/velocity such that it does not break, rupture or otherwisecause defects in the electrode patterns, and maintains the electrodepatterns as attached to the web of base material 104. In anotherembodiment, a second air knife 126 is configured to blow air at anopposing surface of the web of base material 104 and remove debristherefrom. In this embodiment, the second air knife may blow air in thesame direction as the first air knife, or in a direction opposite thefirst air knife, or any other direction that allows the air knife 126 tofunction as described herein. In one embodiment, the air knife 126station is equipped with a vacuum that facilitates removal of the debristhat has been removed by the air knife 126.

With reference to FIG. 8 , after having been processed by the lasersystems 120 a-c and cleaned by the brush station 124 and the air knife126, the web of base material 104 exits the cleaning stations as a webcontaining a population of electrode patterns 800 within web of basematerial 104, collectively a web of electrode material 802.

With further reference to FIGS. 2, 8 and 12 , in one embodiment, web ofelectrode material 802 passes through inspection device 128. Theinspection device 128 is a device configured to analyze the electrodematerial 802 and identify defects thereon. For example, in oneembodiment, the inspection device 128 is a visual inspection deviceincluding a camera 1200, which may be a digital camera such as a digital3-D camera configured to analyze the electrode patterns on the web ofelectrode material 802. In one embodiment, the camera 1200 is a digitallight camera including a CMOS having a 48 megapixel sensitivity. Thecamera 1200 is optically coupled to a lens 1202, which may be a widefield of view lens. In one embodiment, the lens 1202 is a telecentriclens. The lens 1202 is held in place by a lens mount 1204, which in oneembodiment may be adjustable in a vertical direction V to control afocus of the lens 1202. The lens 1202 is aimed to focus on the web ofelectrodes 802 as it passes over inspection plate 1206. In oneembodiment, the inspection plate 1206 includes a transparent orsemi-transparent top 1208 that allows light from a light source (notshown) housed within the inspection plate 1206 to shine therethrough togenerate a backlight. In one suitable embodiment, the intensity and/orcolor of the light may be controlled via the user interface 116. In oneembodiment, one or more additional lighting sources, such as an upstreamlight and a downstream light illuminate the web of electrode material802 while within the inspection station 128. In some embodiments, eachof the lighting sources are independently controllable for intensity andcolor. In one embodiment, the backlight includes a diffuse low anglering light. The web of electrode material 802 may be secured andconveyed over the inspection plate 1206 by gear wheels 1210 that areconfigured to engage the tractor holes 612 of the web of electrodematerial 802. In doing so, the web of electrode material 802 is heldtaught against inspection plate 1206, to substantially eliminate curlingof the web of electrode material 802. Each of the inspection plateleading edge 1214 and the inspection plate trailing edge 1216 may bechamfered (e.g., at angles similar to angle α) to allow the web ofelectrode material to pass smoothly thereover without snagging.

With continued reference to FIG. 12 , in one embodiment, the inspectiondevice 128 includes a trigger sensor 1212 that detects a predeterminedfeature of the web of electrode material 802, such as a fiducial feature602, lengthwise edge cut 600 or any other feature that allows inspectiondevice 128 to function as described herein. Upon detection of thepredetermined feature, the trigger sensor 1212 sends a signal directlyto camera 1200 or indirectly through the user interface 116, to triggerthe camera 1200 to image an electrode of the web of electrode material802. Upon imaging the electrode, camera 1200 may be configured to detectone or more metrics such as a height of the electrode, a size or shapeof a feature that has been cut by one of the laser devices 120 a-120 c(FIG. 2 ), the pitch (distance) between electrodes or any other featurethat allows the inspection device to function as described herein. Forexample, in one suitable embodiment, the inspection device 128 detectwhether the ablations 404 (FIG. 4 ), lengthwise edge cuts 600, fiducialfeatures 602, tractor holes 612, pitch between individual electrodestructures, offset in the cross-web and web direction of tractor holes612, and first and second perforations 608, 610 (FIG. 6 ) are within apredefined tolerance of size, shape, placement and orientation. In onesuitable embodiment, a user may control which feature to inspect usingthe user interface 116.

With In one embodiment, the web of electrode material 802 is heldsubstantially flat during analysis by the inspection device 128, such asby use of application of balanced vacuum or fluid (e.g., air) flow overthe opposing sides of the web of electrode material 802. In thisembodiment, by having the web of electrode material 802 be flat duringinspection, more precise imaging and analysis may be conducted on theweb of electrode material 802, and thus higher quality error and defectdetection is enabled. In one embodiment, the inspection system may beconfigured to provide in-line metrology of the web of base material 104and/or web of electrode material 802. For example, the inspection device128 may be configured to measure metrics such as web thickness, sizesand shapes of the electrode patterns, and the like while the web isbeing conveyed in the down-web direction WD. These metrics may betransmitted to the user interface 116 for viewing or memory storage, orotherwise used to adjust production parameters of the production system100.

In one embodiment, in the event the inspection system determines adefect is present on the web of electrode material 802 (FIG. 8 ), themarking device 130 (FIG. 2 ) will mark the web of electrode material toidentify such defect. The marking device 130 may be a laser etchingdevice, printer, stamper or any other marking device capable of placinga mark indicating a defect is present on a web of electrode material802. In another suitable embodiment, the marking device 130 iscontrollable to mark the web of electrode material 802 with one or moreof an identification number (ID) and known good electrodes (KGEs),allowing for the possibility to further mark the web of electrodematerial 802 with a grade, such as grade A, grade B, grade C or thelike, indicating a quality measurement (such as number or type ofdefects) of a particular electrode within the web of electrode material802.

Upon the processing of the web of base material 104 into the web ofelectrode material 802, the web of electrode material 802 has a webstrength reduction in the down-web direction WD of from 25 percent to 90percent as compared to the unprocessed web of base material 104. Withreference to FIG. 8A, a portion of the web of electrode material 802 isshown. In this embodiment, the web of electrode material 802 includeselectrode clusters EC comprising five electrode patterns 800 separatedby a tie bar 614. However, it should be understood that in otherembodiments, the electrode cluster EC may include any number ofelectrode patters including one or more, such as for example, 2, 3, 4,5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 or any othernumber of electrode patterns 800 between tie bars 614. A distance L_(EC)is defined as a distance in the down-web direction WD between acenterpoint of a first electrode pattern of an electrode cluster EC to acenterpoint of a first electrode in a second electrode cluster EC.

In an exemplary embodiment, the cross-web span of the web S_(W) is 3× mmin the cross-web direction and a width W_(EP) of each electrode pattern800 in the down-web direction WD is × mm. In this embodiment, thereduction in web strength in the down-web direction WD is 33 percent ascompared to the unprocessed web of base material 104. The reduction inweb strength is calculated as the width W_(EP) divided by the cross-webspan S_(W) (i.e., × mm/3× mm=0.33).

In another exemplary embodiment, the cross-web span of the web S_(W) is1.5× mm in the cross-web direction and a width W_(EP) of each electrodepattern 800 in the down-web direction WD is 1.3× mm. In this embodiment,the reduction in web strength in the down-web direction WD is 87 percentas compared to the unprocessed web of base material 104. The reductionin web strength is calculated as W_(EP)/S_(W) (i.e., 1.3×/1.5×=0.87).Web strength in the down-web direction WD is verified and measured as abreaking strength of the web of electrode material 802 using anelectromechanical or hydraulic material tester with at least forcefeedback, and may include displacement feedback, such as an Instronbrand testing machine.

In another exemplary embodiment, there is a strength reduction in thecross-web direction XWD of the web of electrode material 802 as comparedto the web of base material 104. In a first exemplary embodiment, theelectrode cluster width W_(EC) is 6× mm in the down-web direction WD,the width Wm of the tie bar 614 is × mm in the down-web direction WD andthe width W_(EP) of the electrode pattern is × mm in the down-webdirection WD and the length L_(E) of the electrode pattern is 1.7× mm inthe cross-web direction XWD. In this embodiment, the reduction instrength of the web of electrode material 802 in the cross-web directionXWD is about 77 percent as compared to the unprocessed web of basematerial 104. In another exemplary embodiment, the electrode clusterlength L_(EC) is 10× mm, the width Wm of the tie bar 614 is 0× mm (i.e.,no tie bar) and the width W_(EP) of the electrode pattern is 2× mm andthe length L_(E) of the electrode pattern is 1.7× mm. In thisembodiment, the reduction in strength of the web of electrode material802 in the cross-web direction XWD is about 92 percent as compared tothe unprocessed web of base material 104. Web strength in the cross-webdirection XWD is verified and measured as a breaking strength of the webof electrode material 802 using an electromechanical or hydraulicmaterial tester with at least force feedback, and may includedisplacement feedback, such as an Instron brand testing machine.

With further reference to FIG. 9 , the web of electrode material 802 isthen conveyed to the rewind roller 134, where it is wound together withweb of interleaf material 138 to create a spool 900 having alternatinglayers of web of electrode material 802 and web of interleaf material138.

In one suitable embodiment, the user interface 116 may include aprocessor and memory configured to store and execute instructionscausing the production system 100 to function as described herein. Theuser interface 116 may further include a display device, such as a LCDor LED display and a set of controls, or virtual controls, that allow auser to control and adjust parameters of the production system 100, aswell as view metrics such as web conveyance speed, tension, number ofdefects, and any other parameters that allow production system 100 tofunction as described herein.

In use, with reference to FIG. 2 , the base unwind roller 102 ofproduction system 100 is loaded with a web of base material 104. The webof base material 104 is passed across an edge guide 106, to facilitateunwinding of the web of base material 104. In this embodiment, the webof base material 104 is then passed around the idler 108 a and into thesplicing station 110. The idler 108 a is used to facilitate maintainingproper positioning and tension of the web of base material 104, as wellas to change the direction of the web of base material 104. The idler108 a receives the web of base material 104 in the vertical direction,and is partially wrapped around the idler 108 a such that the web ofbase material 104 leaves the idler 108 a in an output directionsubstantially ninety degrees from the input direction. However, itshould be appreciated that the input and output directions may varywithout departing from the scope of this disclosure. In someembodiments, the production system 100 may use multiple idlers 108 a-108x to change the direction of the web of base material one or more timesas it is conveyed through the production system 100. In this embodiment,the user unwinds the base material 104 through the idlers 108 a-108 x,for example as shown in FIG. 2 .

In one embodiment, the splicing station 110 is used to splice twoseparate webs together. In this embodiment, a first web of base material104 is unwound, such that a trailing edge (not shown) of the web of basematerial 104 is stopped within the splicing station 110, and a leadingedge (not shown) of a second web of base material 104 is unwound intothe splicing station 110 such that the trailing edge of the first weband the leading edge of the second web are adjacent one another. Theuser then applies an adhesive, such as an adhesive tape, to join theleading edge of the second web to the trailing edge of the first web toform a seam between the two webs and create a continuous web of basematerial. Such process may be repeated for numerous webs of basematerial 104, as dictated by a user.

In one suitable embodiment, upon exiting the splicing station 110, theweb of base material 104 is conveyed in the down-web direction WD to thenip roller 112. The nip roller 112 is controlled via user interface 116to adjust/maintain the speed at which the web of base material 104 isconveyed through the production system 100. The web of base material 104is pressed against each of the two adjacent rollers 114 of nip roller112, with enough pressure to allow friction of the rollers to move theweb of base material 104, but a low enough pressure to avoid anysignificant deformation or damage to the web of base material 104.

In one embodiment, during use, the speed of the web of base material 104is controlled by controlling the rate of rotation of the high frictionroller of nip roller 112 via user interface 116. In other embodiments,the production system 100 may include one or more additional nip rollers122, 132 to facilitate control of the speed of the web of base material104, and the web of base material is conveyed therethrough. In thisembodiment, the speed of the additional nip rollers 122, 132 may becontrolled via user interface 116. In use, when multiple nip rollers areused, each of the speed of each of the nip rollers 112, 122, 132 may beset via user interface 116 to the same speed, or different speeds asrequired, such that the web of base material 104 is conveyed smoothlythrough production system 100.

In use, in one embodiment, the web of base material is unwound throughthe dancer 118. In this embodiment, the pair of rollers of the dancer118 rotates about the central axis thereof, to passively adjust thetension on the web of base material 104.

With further reference to FIG. 2 , in use the web of base material isconveyed through one or more laser systems 120 a, 120 b, 120 c. Theembodiment shown in FIG. 2 includes three laser systems 120 a-c, but itshould be appreciated that any number of laser systems may be used toallow the production system 100 to function as described herein.

Use of the production system is further described with additionalreference to FIG. 2-6 . The web of base material 104 is conveyed throughthe laser systems 120 a-c in the down-web direction WD. In oneembodiment, the web of base material 104 is conveyed into laser system120 a in the first condition 400, having not yet been ablated or cut.The web of base material 104 is conveyed over chuck 306, and thus overthe plurality of vacuum holes 406. The vacuum holes 406 are in fluidconnection with vacuum 308, and vacuum 308 is controlled via userinterface 116 to draw a vacuum pressure on the web of base material 104passing over the vacuum holes 406. The vacuum pressure is controlled tomaintain the web of base material 104 in a substantially flat/planarstate as it is conveyed across chuck 306. In one embodiment of use, thevacuum pressure through vacuum holes 406 is monitored and adjusted inreal time, via user interface 116, to ensure that the web of basematerial 104 remains substantially flat across chuck 306 and does notlift or buckle while being processed.

With reference to FIG. 4 , the web of base material 104 is conveyed overthe opening 410 of chuck 306, and further over the chamfer 416 on thedownstream edge 414. In this embodiment, the chamfer 416 facilitates theweb of base material 104 passing over downstream edge 414 without havingthe web of base material 104 catch or snag on the downstream edge 414.

With further reference to FIGS. 3-5 , in one embodiment of use, the webof base material 104 is ablated by laser beam 302 (FIG. 3 ) to createthe ablations 404 (FIG. 4 ) in the web of base material 104. In oneembodiment, the web of base material 104 is anode material 502, and theablations 404 remove the anodically active material layer 508 to exposeanode current collector layer 506 (FIG. 5 ). In another embodiment, theweb of base material 104 is cathode material 504, and the ablations 404remove the cathodically active material layer 512 to expose cathodecurrent collector layer 510.

During use, when using the laser system 120 a to make the ablations 404in the web of base material 104, the power of the laser beam 302 iscontrolled via user interface 116 to a level that is capable ofsubstantially completely, or completely, removing the coating layer, butwill not damage or cut through the current collector layer. In use, thelaser beam 302 is controlled, for example via user interface 116, tocreate the ablations 404 while the web of base material 104 is in motionand being conveyed in down-web direction WD. The laser beam 302 iscontrolled such that ablations 404 are created on each lateral side ofthe web of base material 104, as best shown in FIG. 5 . In oneembodiment of use, after making the ablations 404, the laser system 120a is controlled to cut fiducial features 602 in the web of base material104, as described further herein. In some embodiments, multiple lasersare used to each ablate a portion of the web of base material 104 toeach create one or more ablations 404 to increase the throughput of theproduction system 100.

With further reference to FIGS. 2, 3 and 4 , in another stage of use theproduction process, the web of base material 104 is conveyed in thedown-web direction WD toward the cutting area 408 of the laser system120 a. In this embodiment the opening 410 is in fluid communication withthe vacuum 308, and vacuum 308 is controlled to draw a vacuum pressureon the web of base material 104 as it passes over the opening 410. Inanother embodiment, a second vacuum is controlled to equalize thepressure on the web of base material 104 opposite the chuck 306. In thisembodiment, the equalization in pressure is monitored and controlled tomaintain the web of base material 104 in a substantially flat/planarstate and at a consistent height as it passes over the opening 410, tofacilitate focus of laser beam 302 on the web of base material 104.

In one embodiment of use, the laser system 120 a is controlled to cutone or more patterns in the web of base material 104 while the web ofbase material is over the opening 410. With reference to FIG. 6 , thelaser system is controlled to cut one or more lengthwise edge cuts 600to define lengthwise edges of an electrode in the cross-web directionXWD. The lengthwise edge cuts 600 are cut using laser beam 302 bycutting the web of base material 104 in the cross-web direction XWDwhile the web of base material is conveyed in the down-web direction WD.For example, in one embodiment, the path motion of laser beam 302 iscontrolled and/or synchronized with the motion of the web of basematerial 104 in the down-web direction WD. Accordingly, the path of thelaser beam 302 travels at an angle with respect to the down-webdirection WD, to account for the movement of the web of base material inthe 104 in the down-web direction WD. In this embodiment, a compensationfactor is applied to the path of the laser beam 302 to allow cuts to bemade in the cross-web direction XWD while the web of base material iscontinuously traveling in the down-web direction WD. In this embodiment,as the web of base material 104 moves in the web direction WD, the laseris projected onto the web of base material 104 at an initial cutlocation 604, and then is controlled to travel in both the cross-webdirection XWD and the web direction WD until reaching end cut location606 to create the lengthwise edge cuts 600. It should be appreciatedthat the angle at which the laser beam 302 is controlled to travelvaries based upon the speed of the web of base material 104 in thedown-web direction WD. In another embodiment, the web of base material104 is temporarily stopped during the laser processing operation, and assuch, the path of the laser beam 302 does not need to account for themotion of travel of the web of base material 104. Such embodiment may bereferred to as a step process, or step and repeat process. During laserprocessing, one or more of the laser systems 120 a-c use a repeatingalignment feature, such as fiducial features 602 to adjust and/or alignthe laser beam 302 during the laser processing operations, for exampleto compensate for possible variations in positioning of the web of basematerial 104.

With further reference to FIG. 6 , in one embodiment of use, the lasersystem 120 a is controlled to cut one or more of the repeating alignmentfeatures such as a plurality of fiducial features 602 in the web of basematerial 104. The fiducial features 602 are cut at a predetermined/knownlocation on the web of base material 104. In one embodiment of use, thefiducial features 602 are tracked by one or more of the visualinspection systems 310, 312 to measure the location and speed of travelof the web of base material 104. The measurement of the fiducialfeatures 602 is then used to accurately maintain front to back alignmentof the patterns on the web of base material 104 in both the down-webdirection WD and cross-web direction XWD. In some embodiments of use,the laser system 120 a cuts the plurality of tractor holes 612 and/orfiducial features 602. In other embodiments, the fiducial features 602have been pre-formed into the web of base material 104 such that one ormore of laser systems 120 a-c uses them for positioning/alignment asdescribed above.

With reference to FIGS. 2 and 6 , in one suitable embodiment of use, thelaser system 120 a is controlled to cut a first perforation 608 and asecond perforation 610 in the web of base material 104 as part of theelectrode pattern as the web of base material is in motion in thedown-web direction WD. First perforation 608 is formed by laser cuttingusing laser beam 302, while the web of base material is positioned overthe opening 410 in chuck 306. The first perforation 608 is formed as alinear slit (e.g., through-cut) in a direction aligned with the down-webdirection WD. Importantly, the first perforation 608 is cut such that itdoes not extend across the entirety of the width of the electrode W_(e).Instead, the laser system 120 a is controlled to cut the patterns suchthat outer tear strips 700 remain on both the upstream and downstreamedges of the perforation 608, to ensure the electrode pattern remainsconnected to the web of base material 104.

With further reference to FIGS. 6 and 7 , in use, the secondperforations 610 are cut inboard (in the cross-web direction XWD) fromthe first perforations 608. In this embodiment of use, secondperforations 610 are cut as a line of slits in the down-web direction WDseparated by inner tear strips 702. In the embodiment shown, the secondperforations 610 are cut to intersect through holes 704. In theillustrated embodiment, the inner tear strips 702 are cut to be at leasttwo times the length of outer tear strips 700, but may be cut atdifferent lengths as to allow the production system 100 to function asdescribed herein.

In use, with reference to FIGS. 3, 4 and 6 , debris from the laser cutsfor the lengthwise edge cuts 600, the fiducial features 602, and thefirst and second perforations 608, 610 over the opening 410 of the chuck306, is allowed to fall through the opening 410 and the vacuum 308 iscontrolled to collect debris formed during the laser cutting process.

In one suitable embodiment of use, the laser system 120 a is configuredas a first ablation station. In this embodiment, the laser system 120 ais controlled to form the ablations 404, as described above on a firstsurface of the web of base material 104. Upon exiting laser system 120a, the web of base material is conveyed over idler 108 d to flip the webof base material 104 in a manner such that a second surface (opposingthe first surface) of the web of base material 104 is positioned forprocessing by the laser system 120 b. In this embodiment, laser system120 b is configured as a second ablation station and uses the fiducialfeatures 602 to ensure alignment of the ablations 404 in the down-webdirection WD and cross-web direction XWD. Accordingly, the laser system120 b is controlled to perform a second ablation process on the opposingsurface of the web of base material 104, such that ablations 404 on eachsurface of the web of base material 104 are aligned in the web directionWD and the cross-web direction XWD.

In one embodiment of use, the laser system 120 c shown in FIG. 2 isconfigured as a laser cutting station. In this embodiment, the lasersystem 120 c is controlled to perform the laser cuts for lengthwise edgecuts 600, and the first and second perforations 608 and 610.

With further reference to FIGS. 2, 10 and 11 , in one embodiment of use,the web of base material is then conveyed through one or more cleaningstations, such as brushing station 124 and air knife 126 upon havingexited one or more of laser systems 120 a-c. In one suitable embodimentof use, the web of base material 104 is conveyed through brushingstation 124 and bristles 1002 are controlled to delicately contact asurface of the web of base material 104 and remove or dislodge anydebris therefrom. The contact pressure of the bristles 1002 on thesurface of the web of base material 104 is controlled to be low enoughthat it does not break, rupture or otherwise cause defects in theelectrode patterns, and maintains the electrode patterns as attached tothe web of base material 104.

With further reference to FIGS. 10 and 11 , in one suitable embodimentof use, brush 1000 is controlled to move in the cross-web direction XWDby controlling the motor 1014 to effect rotation of the drive wheel1010. A position sensor 1016 is controlled to sense the position of thebrush position marker 1018 to measure the phase (e.g., angular position)and rotations per time of the drive wheel 1010.

In one suitable embodiment of use, a second brush (not shown) iscontrolled to contact the opposing surface of the web of base material104. In this embodiment, the second brush, which may be substantiallythe same as the first brush 1000 is controlled to travel in a directionopposite to the first brush, and suitably 180 degrees out of phase withthe first brush. The phase of the first brush and the second brush maybe monitored via the position sensor 1016, and an equivalent positionsensor of the second brush. In this embodiment, the contact pressure ofthe bristles of the first brush and the second brush, together, iscontrolled to be low enough that it does not break, rupture or otherwisecause defects in the electrode patterns, and maintains the electrodepatterns as attached to the web of base material 104.

In use, the rate of oscillation of the brush 1000 and the pressureexerted by the bristles 1002 against the surface of the web of basematerial 104 may be controlled by the user using the user interface 116.

In one embodiment of use, the brushing station 124 is equipped with avacuum system and controlled to create a vacuum through brush stationorifices 1020 to evacuate debris that has been brushed from one or moresurfaces of the web of base material 104. In this embodiment, the debrisis brushed from the web of base material 104 and falls, or is suctionedthrough the brush station orifices 1020.

In another suitable embodiment of use, one or more of the first brushand the second brush include a load sensor that is measured or monitoredto determine the pressure the brush is exerting upon the web ofelectrode material 802. In this embodiment, the first brush and thesecond brush are controlled, via the user interface 116, to maintain asubstantially uniform brushing pressure on the web of electrode material802 based upon variations in brush bristle wear or electrode thicknessor surface roughness.

In another suitable embodiment of use, one or more of the first brushand the second brush are controlled to move at least partially in thedown-web direction WD at a rate of speed equivalent to the rate of speedof the web of electrode material 802, to maintain a substantially zerospeed differential between the brush and the web of electrode material802 in the down-web direction WD.

In yet another suitable embodiment of use, the brushing station 124 isequipped with a phase measurement sensor 1016 that determines the phaseof the first brush and the second brush. In this embodiment, the phasesensor measures the location of the home sensor flag 1018 of the firstbrush and the second brush. In this embodiment, the phase measurementsensor 1016 determines whether the first and second brushes are within arange of predetermined phase difference, such as 180 degrees out ofphase, 90 degrees out of phase or zero degrees out of phase or any othersuitable phase difference that allows the production system 100 tofunction as described herein, and allows for correction thereof orprovides an alert to the user via user interface 116 or other alertdevice that the brushes are not properly phased.

In still another embodiment of use, an ultrasonic transducer (not shown)is activated to impart ultrasonic vibrations to one or more of the firstand second brushes to facilitate debris removal from the web ofelectrode material 802.

With further reference to FIG. 2 , in one suitable embodiment of use,the web of base material 104 is conveyed through an air knife 126. Inthis embodiment, high pressure air is controlled to contact the surfaceof the web of base material 104 to remove debris therefrom. The airknife 126 is controlled, for example via user interface 116, to supplyair at a pressure/velocity such that it does not break, rupture orotherwise cause defects in the electrode patterns, and maintains theelectrode patterns as attached to the web of base material 104. Inanother embodiment, a second air knife 126 is controlled to blow air atan opposing surface of the web of base material 104 to remove debristherefrom. In this embodiment, the second air knife is controlled toblow air in the same direction as the first air knife, or in a directionopposite the first air knife, or any other direction that allows the airknife 126 to function as described herein. In another embodiment, theair knife 126 station is equipped with a vacuum that is controlled tofacilitate removal of the debris that has been removed by the air knife126.

With reference to FIG. 8 , after having been processed by the lasersystems 120 a-c and cleaned by the brush station 124 and the air knife126, the web of base material 104 exits the cleaning stations as a webcontaining a plurality of electrode patterns 800 within web of basematerial 104, collectively the web of electrode material 802.

With further reference to FIGS. 2, 8 and 12 , in one embodiment of use,the web of electrode material 802 is conveyed through inspection device128. The inspection device 128 is controlled to analyze the electrodematerial 802 and identify defects thereon. For example, in oneembodiment, the inspection device 128 is a visual inspection deviceincluding the camera 1200. The lens 1202 is aimed to focus on the web ofelectrodes 802 as it passes over inspection plate 1206. In oneembodiment of use, the inspection plate 1206 includes the transparent orsemi-transparent top 1208 that allows light from a light source (notshown) housed within the inspection plate 1206 to shine therethrough. Inone suitable embodiment, the intensity and/or color of the light iscontrolled via the user interface 116. In one embodiment of use, the webof electrode material 802 is conveyed over the inspection plate 1206 bygear wheels 1210 that engage the tractor holes 612 of the web ofelectrode material 802. In doing so, the web of electrode material 802is held taught against inspection plate 1206, to substantially eliminatecurling of the web of electrode material 802.

With additional reference to FIG. 12 , in one embodiment of use, theinspection device 128 includes a trigger sensor 1212 that is controlledto detect a predetermined feature of the web of electrode material 802,such as a fiducial features 602, lengthwise edge cut 600 or any otherfeature that allows inspection device 128 to function as describedherein. Upon detection of the predetermined feature, the trigger sensor1212 sends a signal directly to camera 1200 or indirectly through theuser interface 116, to trigger the camera 1200 to image an electrode ofthe web of electrode material 802. Upon imaging the electrode, camera1200 is controlled to detect one or more metrics such as a height of theelectrode, a size or shape of a feature that has been cut by one of thelaser devices 120 a-120 c (FIG. 2 ), the pitch (distance) betweenelectrodes or any other feature that allows the inspection device tofunction as described herein. For example, in one suitable embodiment,the inspection device 128 is controlled to detect whether the ablations404 (FIG. 4 ), lengthwise edge cuts 600, fiducial features 602, andfirst and second perforations 608, 610 (FIG. 6 ), individual electrodestructure cross-web direction XWD dimensions, individual electrodestructure down-web direction WD dimensions, individual electrode activearea offset, and any other ablation or cut of web of electrode material802 are within a predefined tolerance of size, shape, placement,cross-machine direction pitch, machine direction pitch, and orientation,and presents this information to the user via user interface 116. In onesuitable embodiment, a user may control which feature to inspect usingthe user interface 116. In yet another embodiment, inspection device 128may detect a cluster identification code for one or more electrodestructures of the web of electrode material 802.

In one embodiment of use, the inspection system 128 is used to providein-line metrology of the web of base material 104 and/or web ofelectrode material 802. In this embodiment, the inspection device 128 iscontrolled to measure metrics such as web thickness, sizes and shapes ofthe electrode patterns, and the like while the web is being conveyed inthe machine direction. These metrics are transmitted to the userinterface 116 for viewing or memory storage, or otherwise used to adjustproduction parameters of the production system 100.

In one embodiment of use, if the inspection system determines a defectis present on the web of electrode material 802 (FIG. 8 ), the markingdevice 130 (FIG. 2 ) is controlled to mark the web of electrode material802 to identify such defect using a laser etching device, printer,stamper or any other marking device capable of placing a mark indicatinga defect is present on a web of electrode material 802. In anothersuitable embodiment of use, the marking device 130 is controlled to markthe web of electrode material 802 with one or more of an identificationnumber (ID) and known good electrodes (KGEs), allowing for thepossibility to further mark the web of electrode material 802 with agrade, such as grade A, grade B, grade C or the like, indicating aquality measurement (such as number or type of defects) of a particularelectrode within the web of electrode material 802.

With further reference to FIG. 9 , the web of electrode material 802 isthen conveyed to the rewind roller 134, where it is wound together withweb of interleaf material 138 to create a spool 900 having alternatinglayers of web of electrode material 802 and web of interleaf material138.

In one suitable embodiment of use, the web of base material 104 isrewound via a rewind roller 134 together with a web of interleafmaterial 138, which is unwound via interleaf roller 136 to create a rollof electrodes 140 with layers of the electrodes separated by interleafmaterial 138. In some embodiments, the web of base material 104 isrewound via the rewind roller 134 without the web of interleaf material138.

In one embodiment, web of base material 104 has an adhesive tape layer(not shown) adhered to one or both surfaces of the anodically activematerial layer 508, or cathodically active material layer 512,respectively. In this embodiment, in use, the adhesive layer is removedsubsequent to the ablation and cutting (described above) to removeunwanted material or debris.

In one embodiment of use, one or more of the rollers of the conveyorsystem is not perfectly round, such that the roller has an eccentricity.In such embodiment, the eccentric roller(s) are mapped to determine theradius versus radial position. The laser system 120 a-c is thencontrolled to adjust the laser beam 302 position to account for theeccentricity based upon the mapping of the roller(s).

With reference to FIGS. 14-16 , the web of electrode material 802 isused to produce a battery. In this embodiment, individual spools of webof electrode material 1402, 1404, and 1406A and 1406B are each unwoundand merged in merging zone 1408 and stacked in punching and stackingzone 1410 in an alternating configuration including at least one layerof cathode 1402, and anode 1404 separated by separator material 1406. Itshould be appreciated that the spools of electrode material 1402, 1404,and 1406A and 1406B have been produced as web of electrode material 802as described herein.

With reference to FIGS. 14A and 15A, additional detail of the mergingzone 1408 and merging process is described. In the merging zone 1408,the spools of webs of electrode material 1402, 1404, and 1406A and 1406Bare individually unwound in the direction indicated by arrows U. In oneembodiment, the spools of electrode material 1402, 1404, and 1406A and1406B are rolls of electrodes 140, described above. In the embodimentshown in FIG. 14A, spool 1406 is a spool of wound web separator materialhaving a population of individual electrode separators 1506 formedtherein each bounded by outer perforations 608 and lengthwise edge cuts600. Spool 1402 is a spool of wound web of cathode material having apopulation of individual cathode electrodes 1502 formed therein eachbounded by outer perforations 608 and lengthwise edge cuts 600. Spool1404 is a spool of wound web anode material having a population ofindividual anode electrodes 1504 formed therein each bounded by outerperforations 608 and lengthwise edge cuts 600.

As best seen in FIG. 15A, each of the spools of electrode material 1402,1404, 1406 is formed of a web having continuous outer edges 1508 inwhich the tractor holes 612 have been formed, and web edge boundaries1510 defining the outer perimeter of the webs. It should be appreciatedthat in other embodiments, the order and placement of the spools ofelectrode material 1402, 1404, and 1406 during the merging process mayvary so long as separator material is placed between any adjacent layersof anode material and cathode material to prevent short circuiting.

As each of the spools of electrode material 1402, 1404 and 1406 areunwound, the unwound web of each of the spools 1402, 1404 and 1406 iscontrolled to form a catenary curve 1412 prior to engagement with anmerge sprocket 1414, for example as shown in FIG. 14B. In embodiments,merge sprocket 1414 may have a radius R_(s) (FIG. 14H) of 19 mm orlarger, such as 38 mm, 51 mm, 76 mm, 114 mm, 152 mm or any other radiusthat allows the system to function as described herein. It is noted thatany or all of the other sprockets, spools and rollers as describedherein may have the same or similar radiuses that allow the system tofunction as described herein. From a practical standpoint, in someembodiments it is desirable to reduce the size of the merge sprocket1414 (and any other sprocket, spool or roller) such that it takes upless space, and thus the system may accordingly be made smaller. Inaddition, it is noted that using smaller sprockets, spools and rollersreduce the overall path length that the web travels while beingprocessed in the system, which may facilitate reduced waste and improvedalignment of webs, as described herein. Each of the merge sprockets 1414includes a population of teeth 1416 (e.g., pins or projections) that aresized, shaped and placed to precisely engage or align with the tractorholes 612 of the web. For example, if the tractor holes 612 have asquare cross sectional shape, the teeth 1416 would have a correspondingsquare cross sectional shape. However, the size and shape, including anytaper, of the tractor holes 612 and teeth 1416 may be any size and shapethat allows the system to function as described herein, such as thefollowing cross-sectional shapes, square, rectangular, circular, oval,triangular, polygonal or combinations thereof.

With reference to FIGS. 14A, 14B, and 14H, the webs from the spools ofelectrode material 1402, 1404, 1406 are moved in a circular path aroundthe respective merge sprocket 1414 until it engages with an invertedtooth sprocket 1418. In embodiments, the radius of inverted toothsprocket 1418 is 19 mm or larger, such as 38 mm, 51 mm, 76 mm, 114 mm,152 mm or any other radius that allows the system to function asdescribed herein. Each of the inverted tooth sprockets 1418 includes apopulation of inverted teeth 1420 that are configured to engage withteeth 1416 of merge sprocket 1414, while a respective one of the websfrom spools 1402, 1404, and 1406 is located therebetween, to facilitatemaintaining proper positioning and tension of the webs from spools ofelectrode material 1402, 1404, 1406 during the unwind procedure. In onesuitable embodiment, the merge sprocket 1414 is driven by a motor andits speed is controlled to ensure proper tensioning of the webs fromspools of electrode material 1402, 1404, 1406. In another embodiment,merge sprocket 1414 freely rotates and the speed of spools of electrodematerial 1402, 1404 and 1406 are controlled to ensure proper tensioningof the webs from spools of electrode material 1402, 1404, 1406. In onesuch embodiment, a loop sensor 1422, such as an optical sensor orphysical sensor, determines an amount of sag (curvature) of the catenarycurve 1412 which is then used to calculate the tension on the webs fromspools of electrode material 1402, 1404, 1406. For example, if the sagis determined to be too large (i.e., too low of tension), the speed ofmerge sprocket 1414 is increased, or the speed of spools of electrodematerial 1402, 1404, 1406 is decreased in order to reduce the sag (i.e.,increase the tension) to be within a predetermined range. Alternatively,if the sag is determined to be too little (i.e., too high of tension),the speed of merge sprocket 1414 is decreased or the speed of spools ofelectrode material 1402, 1404, 1406 is increased in order to increasethe sag (i.e., decrease the tension) to be within a predetermined range.In one embodiment, the sag is targeted to control the angle α_(CL) atwhich the webs from spools of electrode material 1402, 1404, 1406 makecontact the merge sprocket 1414. In one such embodiment, au is from 0°to 90° measured in a counterclockwise direction from vertical, forexample in embodiments au is 0°, 5°, 10°, 15°, 20°, 25°, 30°, 35°, 40°,45°, 50°, 55°, 60°, 65°, 70°, 75°, 80°, 85° or 90°. In anotherembodiment, au is controlled to be within +/−5 degrees from the vacuumtensioner 1442. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 14H, view (i), au may beindicated using clock positions, where 12:00 refers to the top verticalposition, and each hour in the clockwise direction refers to a movementof 30 degrees. Accordingly, in the embodiment shown in FIG. 14H, view(i), webs from spools 1402, 1404, 1406 make contact the merge sprocket1414 at the 10:30 position on the merge sprocket 1414, and the brushes1440 are positioned at the 11:00 position.

After the webs of electrode material from spools 1402, 1404, 1406 areunwound onto the inverted tooth sprocket 1418, each web is then guidedand transferred onto pin plate 1424 at transfer location 1426. In oneembodiment, tension on the webs of electrode material from spools 1402,1404, 1406 are controlled such that each web is transferred onto pinplate 1424 at the 6 o'clock position (e.g., vertically downward). Thepin plate 1424 includes a series of pins 1428 that are sized and shapedto precisely engage with tractor holes 612 of the webs of electrodematerial from spools 1402, 1404, 1406 and also the inverted teeth 1420of inverted tooth sprocket 1418. Accordingly, each of the webs ofelectrode material from spools 1402, 1404, 1406 is sandwiched betweenthe pin plate 1424 and the inverted tooth sprocket 1418 as it istransferred onto pin plate 1424, while the pins 1428 extend through thetractor holes 612 and into inverted teeth 1420 to facilitate alignmentof the web of electrode material from spools 1402, 1404, 1406 onto pinplate 1424.

In one embodiment, the inverted tooth sprocket 1418 is positioned at asuitable height above the pin plate 1424 in the Z-direction, such asfrom 1 micrometer to 10 millimeters to allow the web to float above thepin plate 1424 before being transferred thereon. In this regard “float”refers to the web having a portion that is not in contact with eitherthe inverted tooth sprocket 1418 or the pin plate 1424, such that theweb has some slack which facilitates self-alignment of tractor holes 612to pins 1428. In embodiments, the height of inverted tooth sprocket 1418above the pin plate 1424 may be adjustable automatically or manually inorder to ensure self-alignment of the tractor holes 612 to pins 1428.The height of inverted tooth sprocket 1418 over pin plate 1424 may alsovary depending on which of the webs of electrode material from spools1402, 1404, 1406 is being transferred to pin plate 1424.

In one embodiment, a nip (i.e., gap) is formed between the invertedtooth sprockets 1418 and the pin plate 1424 such that the web ofelectrode material from spools 1402, 1404, 1406 has sufficient room tofreely float between the inverted tooth sprockets 1418 and the pin plate1424. In one embodiment, the inverted tooth sprocket 1418 is positionedat a suitable height above the pin plate 1424 in the Z-direction tocreate a gap of from 1 micrometer to 10 millimeters to allow the web tofloat above the pin plate 1424 before being transferred thereon. In thisregard “float” refers to the web having a portion that is not in contactwith either the inverted tooth sprocket 1418 or the pin plate 1424, suchthat the web has some slack which facilitates self-alignment of tractorholes 612 to pins 1428. In embodiments, the height of inverted toothsprocket 1418 above the pin plate 1424 may be adjustable automaticallyor manually in order to ensure self-alignment of the tractor holes 612to pins 1428. The height of inverted tooth sprocket 1418 over pin plate1424 may also vary depending on which of the webs of electrode materialfrom spools 1402, 1404, 1406 is being transferred to pin plate 1424. Inthis embodiment, a small amount of possible misalignment of therespective web of electrode material from spools 1402, 1404, 1406 isreduced or eliminated by allowing the web of electrode material fromspools 1402, 1404, 1406 to have a sufficient amount of float (i.e., webthat is not in contact with either the inverted tooth sprocket 1418 orthe pin plate 1424) to self-adjust and thus align the respective tractorholes 612 to the pin plate 1424. In one suitable embodiment, the slackis sufficient to form an S-shaped curve of the web of electrode materialfrom spools 1402, 1404, 1406 between the inverted tooth sprocket 1418and the pin plate 1424. It should be appreciated that as each layer ofthe web of electrode material from spools 1402, 1404, 1406 is placed onto the pin plate 1424, subsequent (i.e., downstream) nips formed betweenthe inverted tooth sprockets 1418 and the pin plate 1424 will increasein size to account for the previous layers of web of electrode materialfrom spools 1402, 1404, 1406 placed thereon. In one suitable embodiment,the nip distance increases by an amount equal to the thickness of theprevious layer of web of electrode material from spools 1402, 1404, 1406placed onto the pin plate 1424.

In one embodiment, as shown in FIG. 14A, there are four spools of theweb of electrode material 1402, 1406, 1404, 1406. In this embodiment,the spools 1402, 1406, 1404, 1406 are located such that they may besequentially unwound and merged onto the pin plate 1424. In thisembodiment, the pin plate 1424 extends from pre-merge location 1430located upstream of a first transfer location 1426. The pin plate 1424extends to a downstream location past the last transfer location 1426X(FIG. 14A). In this embodiment, each of the four spools of the web ofelectrode material 1402, 1406A, 1404, 1406B has its own transferlocation 1426, 1426A, 1426B and 1425X respectively. It should beappreciated that in other embodiments, additional spools of electrodematerial may be unwound and merged, and thus additional transferlocations for each additional spool may be included.

With reference to FIGS. 14A-C, individual layers of the webs ofelectrode material from spools 1402, 1406A, 1404, 1406B are merged(e.g., sequentially layered) to form merged material web 1432. Eachlayer of the webs of electrode material from spools 1402, 1406A, 1404,1406B are merged such that each layer of merged material web isvertically aligned, for example such that one or more of a longitudinalaxis A_(E) (FIG. 7 ) of each electrode pattern, tractor holes 612,fiducial features 602 and lengthwise edge cuts 600, and perforations608, 610 (FIG. 6 ) of the electrode patterns of each layer are alignedin both the web direction and cross-web direction XWD. Variation inalignment of the webs may cause defects in later operations, such aspunching and stacking, and thus maintaining alignment of the webs fromspools 1402, 1406A, 1404, 1406B as they are merged is critical in someembodiments. It is noted that spools of separator material 1406A and1406B may be the same or different separator material. As used herein,when describing spools of webs of separator material generally, 1406Aand 1406B may be generally referred to as spools of web of separatormaterial 1406.

Each layer of the merged material web 1432 has been transferredsequentially, layer by layer, as described in the process above to bevertically aligned. That is, the initial layer in this embodiment,comprised of web of separator material from spool 1406, is transferredto the pin plate 1424 at transfer location 1426. Subsequently, attransfer location 1426A which is located downstream of transfer location1426, web of cathode material from spool 1402 is transferred atop of theweb of separator material from spool 1406. Next, a second layer ofseparator material from spool 1406 (via a separate spool) is transferredatop of the layer of separator material from spool 1406 at transferlocation 1426B, which is downstream of transfer location 1426A. In thisembodiment, a layer of anode material web from spool 1404 is transferredatop the second layer of separator material web from spool 1406 attransfer location 1426X. Once all four layers have been stacked, ormerged, the four layer laminate web is referred to as merged materialweb 1432. During the transfer of each layer onto pin plate 1424, thetarget down-web tension on each layer of merged material web 1432 iszero. In one embodiment, the down-web tension on each layer of mergedmaterial web 1432 is determined by the mass of the web from each spool1402, 1404, 1406, respectively, and the amount of sag of such webbetween merge sprocket 1414 and the pins 1428 of pin plate 1424.

During the transfer of each layer, it should be appreciated that thepins 1428 of pin plate 1424 are sized to extend through each layer ofmaterial and into inverted teeth 1420 of inverted tooth sprocket 1418 tomaintain alignment of each layer with respect to one another. At each ofthe transfer locations, a nip (i.e., gap) is formed at transfer location1426 between the respective inverted tooth sprocket 1418 and pin plate1424, which is set to a fixed gap distance of from 100 to 1000 μm overthe web. In one embodiment, the nip is set to approximately 3 times thethickness of the web. For example, if the thickness of the web in theZ-direction is 100 microns, the nip gap will be approximately 300microns in the Z-direction. It should be appreciated that the actual gapdistance between the respective inverted tooth sprocket 1418 and pinplate 1424 is increased at each downstream transfer location 1426 toaccount for the added thickness of each previous layer that has beentransferred onto the pin plate 1424. In one embodiment, the increase ingap distance at each subsequent downstream transfer location isapproximately equivalent to the height of the added layer in theZ-direction. In one embodiment, the nip gap is about three times theheight of the merged material web at the respective transfer location1426. As shown in FIG. 14E, the pins 1428 of pin plate 1424 may have aconstant cross-sectional area in the Z-direction as shown in the upperfigure of FIG. 14E, or may taper to have a larger cross-sectional areaproximal to the pin plate 1424 in the Z-direction. In embodiments wherepins 1428 have such a taper, the merged material web desirably restsabove the pin plate 1424, approximately mid-way up the pins 1428 in theZ-direction. It should also be appreciated that in other embodiments,the ordering of layers may be different depending on the desiredoutcome, and accordingly, the positioning of each of the spools 1402,1404, 1406 may be placed at the corresponding transfer location tofacilitate proper layering of the webs from spools of electrode material1402, 1404 and 1406. It should also be appreciated that additionalspools of electrode material may be included, and a corresponding numberof transfer locations may be used to facilitate layering of theadditional webs from the additional spools.

A cross sectional view 1500 of one embodiment of merged material web1432 is shown in FIG. 15 . In this embodiment, the merged material web1432 comprises anode current collector layer 506 in the center,anodically active material layer 508, separator 500, cathodically activematerial layer 512 and cathode current collector layer 510 in a stackedformation. Additional layers may be merged, by alternating layers ofwebs from spools of anode 1404, separator 1406, and cathode 1402 to formthe desired number of layers for merged material web 1432. In oneembodiment, the spools of anode 1404, separator 1406, and cathode 1402may be rolls of electrodes 140, as described above.

In some embodiments, the pin plate 1424 includes a population ofindividual separate pin plates (each similar to pin plate 1424) thateach are abutted and indexed to one another to form a continuous streamof pin plates. In this embodiment, it is important that the individualpin plates be precisely positioned with respect to one another, suchthat proper registration of the layers of merged material web 1432 ismaintained as each of the layers are transferred onto the pin plates.Accordingly, in some embodiments, each pin plate 1424 may be held by ajig or other alignment device, such as a pin, magnet, protrusion or thelike to maintain proper registration of the pin plates 1424. The pinplates 1424 are conveyed in the web direction via a conveyor mechanism1436, which is controlled to travel at the same speed as inverted toothsprocket 1418, such that the layers of merged material web 1432 areproperly aligned to the pins 1428 of pin plates 1424. In one embodiment,the engagement of pins 1428 with inverted teeth 1420 are what propel pinplates 1424 in the down-web direction WD. Accordingly, in suchembodiment, proper speed is maintained between pin plates 1424 andinverted tooth sprocket 1418.

In one embodiment, at one or more of transfer locations 1426, 1426A-X,an electrode defect sensor 1434 is positioned such that the web ofelectrode material from spools 1402, 1404 and 1406 pass adjacent to thedefect sensor 1434. It is noted that as used herein, 1426X is used torefer to any number of additional transfer locations as describedherein. The defect sensor 1434 is configured to detect defects in theweb of electrode material from spools 1402, 1404 and 1406. For example,defect sensor 1434 may be configured to detect missing electrodes fromthe web, misaligned or missing tractor holes 612, fiducial features 602,ablations, cuts, perforations or other weakened areas in the web ofelectrode material from spools 1402, 1404 and 1406. In the event thedefect sensor 1434 detects a defect in the web of electrode materialfrom spools 1402, 1404 and 1406, the web may be marked using a markingdevice collocated with the defect sensor 1434 to indicate the defect.The marking of the defect may be used in subsequent process steps toensure that the defective portion of the web of electrode material fromspools 1402, 1404 and 1406 is not used in the stacking phase, furtherdescribed below, or is otherwise disposed of prior to becoming part of astacked cell 1704.

With reference to FIG. 14D, one embodiment of the manufacturing systemincludes an electrode material tensioning section 1438 configured toflatten the web of electrode material from spools 1402, 1404 and 1406prior to entering the transfer location 1426. In some instances, the webof electrode material from spools 1402, 1404 and 1406 may tend to curl,or cup, such that the web has a U-shape. It is speculated that the curlmay be caused by a weakening of the web structure due to lengthwise edgecuts 600, which cause the center portion of the web to sag. In addition,electrical, or static electrical charge buildup along the longitudinaledges of the web of electrode material from spools 1402, 1404 and 1406may cause such edges to curl inwardly. If the web of electrode materialfrom spools 1402, 1404 and 1406 has such a curl, the position of thetractor holes 612, and the spacing between opposing tractor holes 612will not be aligned to the merge sprocket 1414.

Accordingly, in order to remediate the curl, the tensioning section 1438may include at least one of counter rotating brushes 1440 (FIGS. 14D,14F, 14G, 14H) and a vacuum tensioner 1442. In one embodiment, thecounter rotating brushes 1440 are driven by an electric motor (notshown) in opposing directions W_(b) in the cross-web direction XWD. Inone embodiment the counter-rotating brushes have an outer diameter D_(b)of from 25 mm to 150 mm and an inner diameter D a of from 10 mm to 50mm. The counter rotating brushes, in one embodiment, have a centralthrough-bore 1441 having a diameter of from 5 mm to 25 mm, the center ofwhich defines the axis upon which the counter rotating brushes 1440rotate about. Each of the counter rotating brushes 1440 have a thicknessT_(B) of from 2 mm to 20 mm. The counter rotating brushes include aplurality of bristles 1443 which may be made of natural or syntheticmaterials, such as animal hair, nylon, carbon fiber, high densitypolyethylene, high temperature nylon, PEEK, polyester, polyethylene,polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinylchloride, metals, metal alloys,plastic, and the like. In a preferred embodiment, the bristles 1443 aremade from nylon. The bristle material should be suitably selected toallow the brushes to function as described herein without causingabrasive or other damage to the web. The counter rotating brushes 1440are adjustably positioned adjacent flatten the web of electrode material1402, 1404 and 1406, such that the counter rotating brushes 1440 contactthe web at a brush pitch angle α_(bp) (FIG. 14G) with sufficientpressure to uncurl and flatten the longitudinal edges of the web ofelectrode material from spools 1402, 1404 and 1406 prior to engagingwith merge sprocket 1414. In some embodiments, the rotational speed andcontact pressure of the counter rotating brushes 1440 can be monitoredand adjusted to ensure a sufficient flatness of the web of electrodematerial from spools 1402, 1404 and 1406 is obtained. In one embodiment,for example as shown in FIG. 14H, view (ii), the brush speed isreferenced as a velocity vector V_(bs) having a velocity component V_(b)in the cross-web direction XWD and a velocity component V s in the downweb direction WD. In embodiments, the velocity component V_(b) may beset (such as by adjusting the rotational speed (e.g., rpm) of thebrush), to between from 50 mm/sec to 250 mm/sec, such as 50 mm/sec, 60mm/sec, 70 mm/sec, 80 mm/sec, 90 mm/sec, 100 mm/sec, 110 mm/sec, 120mm/sec, 130 mm/sec, 140 mm/sec, 150 mm/sec, 160 mm/sec, 170 mm/sec, 180mm/sec, 190 mm/sec, 200 mm/sec, 210 mm/sec, 220 mm/sec, 230 mm/sec, 240mm/sec or 250 mm/sec or any velocity therein. In embodiments, thevelocity component V s may be set (such as by adjusting the speed of theweb in the Web direction WD) from 10 mm/sec to 100 mm/sec, such as 10mm/sec, 20 mm/sec, 30 mm/sec, 40 mm/sec, 50 mm/sec, 60 mm/sec, 70mm/sec, 80 mm/sec, 90 mm/sec, 100 mm/sec or any velocity therein.Accordingly, the brush tip speed across the web may be calculated asV_(bs)=sqrt(V_(b) ²+V_(s) ²). In some embodiments, V_(bs) may be withinthe range of from 51 mm/sec to 270 mm/sec.

In one embodiment, the tensioning section includes a deionizer device1447 configured to reduce or eliminate the static electrical charge onthe web of electrode material from spools 1402, 1404 and 1406. In suchembodiment, the deionizer device 1447 is placed upstream, just prior to,the vacuum tensioner 1442 and counter rotating brushes 1440. Thedeionizer device 1447 is configured to neutralize an electrical chargeof components, such as the vacuum tensioner 1442, which may be formedfrom plastic pipe, such as PVC, in some embodiments. For example, if adeionizer is not used, when the separator material from spool 1406passes over the vacuum tensioner, or when small particles are carried byairflow through the vacuum tensioner, it may build up a staticelectrical charge on the vacuum tensioner 1442. Accordingly, thedeionizer device 1447 may be used to neutralize the electrical charge onthe vacuum tensioner 1442, thus allowing the web of electrode materialfrom spools 1402, 1404 and 1406 to pass thereby without beingelectrically attracted to the vacuum tensioner 1442. It should be notedthat although the deionizer device has been described with respect tovacuum tensioner 1442, one or more deionizer devices 1447 may be used onany component within the system that is affected by electrical chargeand benefits from charge neutralization, such as any component that isin contact with or close proximity to webs of electrode material fromspools 1402, 1404 and 1406. In some embodiments, the deionizer device1447 is a DC ionizing bar. In some embodiments, the deionizer device1447 is capable of pulsed DC ionization for short range applications,such as from 20 mm to 200 mm. In some embodiments, the frequency of thepulses may be controlled, automatically, or by a user, to be set from 1Hz to 20 Hz in order to adjust the effect of the deionizer device 1447on the affected component. In some embodiments, the deionizer device1447 is configured with metal pins, such as titanium pins or the like,that are used as ionizer emitters. Such pins may have an output of from−3 kV to +7.5 kV in pulsed DC mode, which facilitates allowing positiveto negative charged ion ratios of from 80:20 to 20:80. Accordingly, thedeionizer device 1447 In other embodiments the order of the deionizerdevice 1447, vacuum tensioner 1442 and counter rotating brushes 1440 mayvary. In another embodiment, electrical charge buildup may be preventedby grounding the affected component. In this embodiment, a groundingstrap or grounding wire (not shown) is electrically connected to theaffected device, such as vacuum tensioner 1442, to prevent electricalcharge buildup by providing the electrical charge to have a path toground. In yet another embodiment, electrical charge buildup ofcomponents may be prevented by coating the affected device with aconductive coating to prevent charge buildup.

In one suitable embodiment, the rotational speed of the counter rotatingbrushes 1440 is kept sufficiently low to reduce or eliminate excessivewear or heat build-up caused by the friction of counter rotating brushes1440 in contact with the web of electrode material 1402, 1404 and 1406.In one embodiment, the counter rotating brushes 1440 are configured tosmooth or otherwise reduce wrinkles present in the web of electrodematerial from spools 1402, 1404 and 1406. In one embodiment, the counterrotating brushes 1440 are configured to reduce or eliminatemicro-wrinkles in the web of electrode material 1402, 1404 and 1406. Insuch embodiment, the micro-wrinkles are wrinkles in the web that are toosmall to be removed by the deionizer 1447 or the vacuum tensioner 1442.In one such embodiment, the micro-wrinkles are defined as wrinkles thatare approximately twenty percent the magnitude of macro-wrinkles thatare removed by the deionizer 1447 or the vacuum tensioner 1442. In onesuitable example, if a macro-level wrinkle is approximately 100 mm inmagnitude in the Z-direction, micro-wrinkles will have a magnitude of 20mm or less in the Z-direction. In other embodiments, macro-wrinkles mayhave a magnitude of between 1 mm to 250 mm and micro-wrinkles may have amagnitude of from 0.2 mm to about 50 mm.

In another embodiment, in addition to or alternative to the counterrotating brushes 1440, the material tensioning section 1438 includes avacuum tensioner 1442, which includes a plurality of vacuum orifices1444 located on a surface of the vacuum tensioner 1442 adjacent to theweb of electrode material from spools 1402, 1404 and 1406. In thisembodiment, a vacuum is pulled through the vacuum tensioner 1442, whichcreates a suction through vacuum orifices 1444. The vacuum tensioner1442 is positioned at an angle α_(vac) (FIG. 14G) with respect to thevertical direction. The suction from vacuum orifices 1444 creates afluid flow (typically air flow) across the surface of the web ofelectrode material from spool 1402 facing the vacuum orifices 1444.Because the fluid flow is faster across the surface of the web ofelectrode material from spools 1402, 1404, 1406 facing the vacuumorifices 1444 than on the opposing side of the web of electrode materialfrom spools 1402, 1404, 1406 the effect (i.e., Bernoulli effect) pullsthe web of electrode material from spools 1402, 1404 and 1406 taughtagainst the vacuum tensioner 1442, and facilitates alignment of thetractor holes 612 with the teeth 1416 of merge sprocket 1414.

With further reference to FIG. 14B, in one suitable embodiment, theteeth 1416 of merge sprocket 1414 are tapered in a manner thatfacilitates the outer edges of the tractor holes 612, in the cross webdirection XWD, being pulled apart as the tractor holes 612 are seatedonto the teeth 1416. For example, the teeth 1416 may be tapered to havea larger cross section at a proximal end (proximal to a center of mergesprocket 1414) and continuously vary in cross-section, to a smallercross section in a distal direction (i.e., distal to the center of mergesprocket 1414). Accordingly, the taper of the teeth 1416 applies asufficient cross-web tension on the web of electrode material fromspools 1402, 1404 and 1406 to eliminate the sag and curl of the web inthe cross web direction XWD. In this embodiment, the vacuum orifices1444 of the vacuum tensioner 1442 are only located at or near a mergepoint of the web of electrode material 1402, 1404 and 1406 to the teeth1416 of merge sprocket 1414, because after that point the web ofelectrode material 1402, 1404 and 1406 is seated against the mergesprocket 1414 via the tension applied to the web of electrode materialfrom spools 1402, 1404 and 1406 by the taper of teeth 1416.

In one embodiment, the counter rotating brushes 1440 are located, in adownstream location in the web direction WD of vacuum tensioner 1442.However, in other embodiments, counter rotating brushes are co-locatedwith, or upstream of, vacuum tensioner 1442. In one embodiment, each ofthe transfer locations 1426, 1426A-X, include counter rotating brushes1440 and a vacuum tensioner. In another embodiment, only transferstations that transfer web of separator material include the counterrotating brushes 1440, but all transfer stations include a vacuumtensioner 1442.

With reference to FIG. 19 , in one embodiment, an alignment featuredetection system 1900 is positioned downstream of the merging zone 1408.In embodiments, alignment of the layers of the merged material web arewithin 1 mm, when measured from a centerpoint of the layers in each ofthe web direction WD and cross web direction XWD. The alignment featuredetection system 1900 includes an optical sensor 1902 and a back-light1904. The optical sensor may be a digital camera or other lightsensitive device capable of allowing the device to function as describedherein. In this embodiment, the optical sensor 1902 is positioned suchthat it captures light from back-light 1904 after such light has passedthrough merged material web 1432, such that a silhouette of the mergedmaterial web 1432 is captured by the optical sensor 1902. The silhouetteof the merged material web 1432 is analyzed by the optical sensor 1902to accurately locate fiducial features 602. The location of fiducialfeatures 602, as located by optical sensor 1902 may be stored by userinterface 116 (FIG. 1 ), and used to ensure that the merged material web1432 is precisely positioned for subsequent processing. Accordingly, theprecise positioning means that each layer of merged material web isvertically aligned, for example such that a longitudinal axis A_(E)(FIG. 7 ) of each electrode pattern, tractor holes 612, fiducialfeatures 602 and edges (lengthwise edge cuts 600, perforations 608, 610)(FIG. 6 ) of the electrode patterns of each layer are aligned in boththe web direction and cross-web direction XWD. In one embodiment, asfurther described below, the location, fiducial features 602, as locatedby optical sensor 1902 are used to control the position of the receivingunit(s) 2010 and alignment pins 2012 to align with the fiducial features602. Accordingly, it is important that the fiducial features of eachlayer are in alignment. In one embodiment, the receiving unit 2010 iscontrolled to align a center of the alignment pins to within +/−10 μm to50 μm of a center of the fiducial features 602 in the web-direction WD.In another embodiment, the receiving unit 2010 is controller such thatthe center of the alignment pins 2012 are controlled to align with thefiducial features 602 in the cross-web direction XWD to within +/−10 μmto 50 μm.

With reference to FIGS. 20 and 20A, in one embodiment, a high volumestacking system 2000 is used. In this embodiment, the merging zone 1408is similar to that as described above. However, in this embodiment, atoothed belt 2002 (denoted by the dashed line) is utilized. In oneembodiment, the toothed belt 2002 comprises stainless steel and includesa population of conveying teeth 2033 (FIG. 20A) that are sized, shapedand positioned to engage one or more of the tractor holes 612 orfiducial features 602 of the web of electrode material from spools 1402,1404 and 1406, and subsequently merged material web 1432. The toothedbelt 2002 is configured to be operated in an endless configurationthrough the merging zone 1408 and a stacking and punching zone 2004. Thetoothed belt 2002 is conveyed using one or more synchronizationsprockets 2006 that engage a drive portion of the toothed belt 2002 tocontrol its speed, which is synchronized to the processes within mergingzone 1408, described above.

With further reference to FIG. 20 , the high volume stacking systemincludes an automated jig loading assembly 2008 within the punching andstacking zone 1410. The automated jig loading assembly includes one ormore receiving unit 2010. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 20 , there arefour receiving unit 2010 aligned sequentially along the path of thetoothed belt 2002. In one embodiment, each of the receiving units 2010are driven by the same actuating device to create simultaneous motion ofall receiving units 2010, which may be a cam, the drives the motion ofthe receiving unit 2010. In other embodiments, each of the receivingunit 2010 may be independently controlled or driven.

With reference to FIGS. 21 and 22 , each receiving unit 2010 comprisesone or more alignment pins 2012 extending from a receiver base 2014. Thealignment pins 2012 are configured to engage with one or more of thefiducial features 602 or tractor holes 612. Each receiving unit 2010 maybe coupled to a 2-axis motion control device, such as a servo, motor orthe like that allows the receiving unit 2010 to move in the cross-webdirection XWD as well as the down web direction WD. In one embodiment,the motion control device is controlled based upon the location offiducial features 602, as located by optical sensor 1902. In thisembodiment, the location of fiducial features 602 is used to control themotion control device to position the receiving unit 2010 such that itsalignment pins 2012 are properly positioned to pass through thecorresponding fiducial features 602 of the merged material web 1432. Themotion control device will be controlled to properly position thereceiving unit 2010 for each punching operation performed in thepunching and stacking zone 1410, as further described below.

With additional reference to FIGS. 23 and 26A-C, the punching andstacking operations are described. In this embodiment, the mergedmaterial web 1432 is conveyed from the merging zone 1408 to the punchingand stacking zone 1410. The merged material web 1432 passes under apunch head 2016 and over the receiving unit 2010 as it is conveyed bytoothed belt 2002, which is conveyed by one or more of thesynchronization sprockets 2006. In one embodiment, the punch head 2016is controlled to move in the Z direction (e.g., vertically) in anup-and-down motion, as indicated by the double-headed arrow. In oneembodiment, the receiving unit 2010 is controlled to move in the Zdirection (e.g., vertically) in an up-and-down motion, as indicated bythe double-headed arrow.

With reference to FIGS. 24A-C, in one embodiment, each receiving unit2010 has a single pair of alignment pins 2012, as described above thatare sized and spaced to correspond with the fiducial features 602 ofeach electrode sub-unit 2018. In one embodiment, the alignment pins 2012are configured to engage only a portion of the inner perimeter of thefiducial features 602. For example, in one embodiment the fiducialfeatures 602 have a substantially rectangular inner perimeter, and thealignment pins 2012 are configured to contact only the outer edge 2400,down-web edge 2402 and up-web edge 2404, but not the inside edge 2406(FIG. 24D) of fiducial features 602. During a single punching operation,a single electrode sub-unit 2018 is punched and loaded onto thereceiving unit 2010. In another embodiment, the alignment pins 2012 andfiducial features 602 are correspondingly sized and positioned such thatthere is a clearance between the alignment pins 2012 and all edges(outer edge 2400, down-web edge 2402, up-web edge 2404, and inside edge2406) of the fiducial features 602. In this embodiment, there may be aclearance of about 50 micrometers between the alignment pin 2012 andeach of outer edge 2400, down-web edge 2402, up-web edge 2404, andinside edge 2406. In other embodiments, the clearance between thealignment pin 2012 and each of outer edge 2400, down-web edge 2402,up-web edge 2404, and inside edge 2406 may be within a range of from 0to 2000 micrometers, such as 0 micrometers, 50 micrometers, 100micrometers, 150 micrometers, 200 micrometers, 250 micrometers, 300micrometers, 350 micrometers, 400 micrometers, 450 micrometers, 500micrometers, 550 micrometers, 600 micrometers, 650 micrometers, 700micrometers, 750 micrometers, 800 micrometers, 850 micrometers, 900micrometers, 950 micrometers, 1000 micrometers, 1050 micrometers, 1100micrometers, 1150 micrometers, 1200 micrometers, 1250 micrometers, 1300micrometers, 1350 micrometers, 1400 micrometers, 1450 micrometers, 1500micrometers, 1550 micrometers, 1600 micrometers, 1650 micrometers, 1700micrometers, 1750 micrometers, 1800 micrometers, 1850 micrometers, 1900micrometers, 1950 micrometers and 200 micrometers. In one embodiment,the clearance between the alignment pin 2012 and down-web edge 2402 andup-web edge 2404 are each within the range of from 50 micrometers to2000 micrometers. In yet other embodiments, the clearance between thealignment pin 2012 and each of outer edge 2400, down-web edge 2402,up-web edge 2404, and inside edge 2406 may be the same or differentclearances to allow the system to function as described herein.

As shown in FIG. 24E, the receiving unit 2010 may include a movableplatform 2034 that moves in the Z-direction and maintains a Z-directionforce in the direction toward the punch head 2016. The movable platform2034 is controlled to move in close proximity to merged material web1432 during the punching process to prevent uneven shifting of theelectrode sub-unit, as shown at 2018′ as the electrode sub-unit 2018 isseparated from the merged material web 1432. It should also beappreciated that any misalignment of the layers of an electrode sub-unit2018, for example if the fiducial features 602 of each layer are notprecisely aligned in the web direction WD and cross web direction XWD(e.g., causing a reduced cross sectional area), it may create additionalfriction on alignment pins 2012 causing uneven shifting of the electrodesub-unit, as shown at 2018′. In one embodiment, the movable platform2034 is controlled to contact the electrode sub-unit 2018 of mergedmaterial web 1432 (e.g., zero clearance). In other embodiments, themovable platform 2034 is controlled to come within a range of from 0 to1000 micrometers of merged material web 1432, for example, 0micrometers, 50 micrometers, 100 micrometers, 150 micrometers, 200micrometers, 250 micrometers, 300 micrometers, 350 micrometers, 400micrometers, 450 micrometers, 500 micrometers, 550 micrometers, 600micrometers, 650 micrometers, 700 micrometers, 750 micrometers, 800micrometers, 850 micrometers, 900 micrometers, 950 micrometers or 1000micrometers. In one embodiment, the movable platform 2034 is attached toa ball-bearing slide mechanism allowing movement in the Z-direction. Inone embodiment, the movable platform 2034 may be coupled to a gear drivemechanism that is driven by a stepper motor that is activated to movejust prior to each punching operation and/or just subsequent to eachpunching operation.

In embodiments, the punch head 2016 is made of a metal or metal alloy,such as stainless steel, aluminum, titanium, steel, other metals andalloys thereof In other embodiments, the punch head 2016 may be madefrom any material that allows the system to function as describedherein, such as plastics, carbon fiber, wood, and the like. The punchhead should be of sufficient strength and stiffness that it does notdeform as it applies the force to the electrode sub-unit 2018. Withreference to FIGS. 26A-C, in one embodiment, the punch head 2016 has apunch face 2017 that is sized and shaped to substantially cover theentirety of a surface of the electrode sub-unit 2018 facing the punchface 2017. In one embodiment, punch face 2017 includes fiducial bores2019 that are sized and shaped to be the same as, or substantially thesame as fiducial features 602. Accordingly, the alignment pins 2012 maypass through the fiducial bores 2019 during the punching operations. Inone embodiment, the punch head 2016 has a punch face 2017 that is sizedin the cross-web direction to be slightly smaller than the electrodesub-unit 2018. For example, in one embodiment, the electrode sub-unit2018 may have a portion 2023 that extends from 0 to 100 micrometers pastdistal end 2021 of punch face 2017 in the cross-web direction XWD, asshown for example in FIG. 26C. In one embodiment, the punch face 2017may be slightly larger than the electrode sub-unit 2018 in the webdirection WD, such that the punch face 2017 extends past the lengthwiseedges 2026 into the lengthwise edge cuts 600 by from 0 to 100micrometers in the web direction WD. In one embodiment, the punch face2017 does not include any sharp cutting edges for cutting the electrodesub-unit 2018, which in some instances may cause contamination of thelayers of the electrode sub-unit 2018. Rather, the punch face 2017 hasblunt edges and separates the electrode sub-units 2018 from the webusing a downward force to rupture perforations, as described herein.

In one embodiment, the punch head 2016 applies a Z-direction force tothe electrode sub-unit 2018 which transmits such force to the movableplatform 2034, which exerts an opposing force thereto (e.g., bycontrolling the stepper motor to create a holding torque). In oneembodiment, these opposing forces cause a slight compression in theelectrode sub-unit that facilitates overcoming the static frictionbetween the alignment pins and the fiducial features 602 of theelectrode sub-unit 2018, which facilitates maintaining parallelism ofthe electrode sub-unit 2018 with an ideal plane that is perpendicular tothe alignment pins 2012. In one embodiment, the force exerted by thepunch head 2016 to the movable platform 2034 causes the movable platform2034 to move in the Z-direction a distance equal to the height of theelectrode sub-unit 2018, thus rupturing the weakened region along thepath formed by lengthwise edge cuts 600 and perforations 608, and thusready to accept the next electrode sub-unit 2018. In another embodiment,the movable platform 2034 may be controlled to move away from the punchhead 2016 in the Z-direction, for example by use of the stepper motor, apredetermined distance equal to the z-direction dimension of anelectrode sub-unit 2018 after each electrode sub-unit 2018 has beenpunched by punch head 2016. The moveable platform 2034 thus facilitatesmaintaining the electrode sub-units perpendicular to the alignment pins2012 during the punching operation.

As shown in FIG. 24C, for example, the merged material web 1432 may thenadvance to place an additional electrode sub-unit 2018 in position to bepunched and stacked, and this process may continue until a predeterminednumber of electrode sub-units 2018 are loaded onto the receiving unit2010. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 24C there are three stackedelectrode sub-units 2018, but it should be appreciated that any numberof electrode sub-units may be stacked on receiving unit 2010. Inembodiments, the number of electrode sub-units 2018 that are stacked maybe in the range of from 1 to 300. In the present embodiment, eachelectrode sub-unit comprises four layers, but may comprise any number oflayers in accordance with the present disclosure.

In one embodiment, prior to initiating a punching operation, the highvolume stacking system 2000 verifies that there are no defects (asdetermined by the electrode defect sensor 1434) in an electrode sub-unit2018, in the event a defect is detected, the system is controlled toavoid punching and stacking of the defective electrode sub-unit 2018. Inone embodiment, where multiple receiving units 2010 and correspondingpunch heads 2016 are used, if a defect is found on one of the electrodesub-units 2018, all of the receiving units 2010 and corresponding punchheads 2016 are controlled to skip the punching and stacking operation,and the merged material web 1432 is conveyed forward to a position suchthat all receiving units 2010 and corresponding punch heads 2016 arealigned under defect-free electrode sub-units 2018.

In one embodiment, in order to separate each of the electrode-sub units2018 from the merged material web 1432, the punch head 2016 is moved inthe Z-direction toward the merged material web 1432, for example towithin about 0.15 mm to about 0.50 mm from the surface of the mergedmaterial web. The alignment pins 2012 of the receiving jig arecontrolled to move in the Z-direction toward the opposing surface of themerged material web 1432. Alignment of the alignment pins 2012 and punchhead 2016 may be verified using optical sensor 1902. If it is determinedthat the alignment pins 2012 are not properly aligned with the punchhead 2016, one or more of the punch head 2016, receiving unit 2010 ormerged material web 1432 may be moved in the web direction WD untilsatisfactory alignment is achieved. In such embodiment, one or more ofreceiving unit 2010 and punch head 2016 may be configured fortranslation in the web direction via a motorized carriage assembly (notshown). Once satisfactory alignment of alignment pins 2012 and punchhead 2016 are achieved, the receiving unit is moved in the Z-directionsuch that the alignment pins 2012 move through the fiducial features 602and into corresponding punch head holes 2020 in the punch head 2016. Inone embodiment, the alignment pins 2012 enter at least 2 mm into thepunch head holes 2020. In one embodiment, the punch head holes 2020 aresized and shaped to closely match the outer diameter of the alignmentpins 2012 to minimize any shifting or misalignment during the punchingand stacking operation.

Next, the punch head 2016 is controlled to move in the Z-directiontoward receiving unit 2010, for example at least 5 mm past the opposingsurface of the merged material web 1432. As the punch head 2016 moves,the electrode sub-unit 2018 is separated from the merged material web1432 along a weakened region forming an outer perimeter of the electrodesub-unit 2018. For example, the weakened region may comprise the pathalong lengthwise edge cuts 600 and perforations 608 (FIG. 6 ) of theelectrode patterns of each layer. In such embodiments, the perforations608 are ruptured, freeing the electrode sub-unit 2018 from the mergedmaterial web 1432. The web downstream of such punched-out electrodesub-units 2018 is referred to as spent web 2022. In one embodiment,layers of merged material web 1432 have been placed such that anodematerial 1404 is on top (i.e., to be contacted by punch head 2016). Inanother embodiment, layers of merged material web 1432 have been placedsuch that cathode material 1402 is on top (i.e., to be contacted bypunch head 2016). In another embodiment, layers of merged material web1432 have been placed such that separator material 1406 is on top (i.e.,to be contacted by punch head 2016). In some embodiments, it ispreferred that either the anode material 1404 or the cathode material1402 is contacted by the punch head 2016 because they have higher massthan separator material 1406. Accordingly, in such embodiments, theanode material 1404 and cathode material 1402 are less likely to bepulled back up in the Z-direction away from merged material web 1432when the punch head 2016 retracts after the punching operation. Forexample, in embodiments where the separator material 1406 is low-mass,it may under certain conditions be drawn up with the punch head 2016 asit retracts due to a vacuum effect. In such embodiments, it is thusdesirable to have the merged material web 1432 have its top layer beeither anode material 1404 or cathode material 1402 to avoid sucheffect.

After the electrode sub-unit has been separated from the merged materialweb 1432, the punch head 2016 moves in the Z direction away from thereceiving unit 2010 and the receiving unit moves in the Z direction awayfrom the punch head 2016. In one embodiment, both the punch head 2016and the receiving unit 2010 both move simultaneously. In otherembodiments, each of the punch head 2016 and the receiving unit 2010 arecontrolled to move sequentially. In one embodiment, each of the punchhead 2016 and the receiving unit 2010 are moved to a distance of about0.5 mm away from the respective surfaces of the merged material web 1432in the Z-direction.

It should be appreciated that although FIG. 23 illustrates only a singlepunch head 2016 and receiving unit 2010, that in other embodiments apopulation of corresponding punch heads 2016 and receiving units 2010may be used simultaneously to increase the number of electrode sub-unitsseparated from the merged material web 1432 during a unit of time. Forexample, in one embodiment, such as that shown in FIG. 20 , a series offour punch heads 2016 and receiving units 2010 are used. In yet otherembodiments, there may be from 1 to 100 each of punch heads 2016 andreceiving units 2010 running simultaneously. It is further noted that insome embodiments, the above punching and stacking operations areperformed intermittently (i.e., while the merged material web isstopped). However, in other embodiments, the system may be configuredsuch that the punching and stacking operations are continuous, such thatthe merged material web remains in motion in the web direction WD duringthe punching and stacking operations.

After the electrode sub-unit has been separated from the merged materialweb 1432, the downstream remaining web is referred to as spent web 2022,which is conveyed in the web direction WD using a de-merge sprocket 2024(FIG. 25 ) that engages with the tractor holes 612 of the spent web2022. For example, as shown in FIG. 25 , the spent web 2022 includes theportion of the web having tractor holes 612 and tie bars 614. The spentweb may also include any unpunched electrode sub units 2025 that werenot punched due to a misalignment or other defect in one or more of theunpunched electrode sub-units 2025. In one embodiment, the spent web2022 is rewound onto a spent web take-up roller 2026. The spent web 2022is thus cleanly removed from the toothed belt 2002, which thusfacilitates toothed belt 2002 to progress forward in the web-directionWD, in a continuous loop manner, to receive merged material web 1432 tobe processed.

In one embodiment, the high volume stacking system 2000 includes one ormore cross-web belt tensioners 2028. The cross-web belt tensioners 2028are configured to engage with a secondary set of teeth 2032 (FIG. 20A)of the toothed belt 2002. The secondary set of teeth 2032 are located onan opposing side of the toothed belt 2002 from where the sprocket 2006engages the toothed belt 2002. The cross-web belt tensioners 2028function to provide a cross-web tension on the merged material web 1432in the cross-web direction to facilitate alignment and positioning ofthe fiducial features 602. In one embodiment, the cross-web belttensioners 2028 include a set of inverted teeth that engage thesecondary set of teeth 2032. The cross-web belt tensioners may beaffixed to a servo, motor or other motion control device to move thecross-web belt tensioners 2028 in the cross-web direction XWD. As thecross-web belt tensioners 2028 are moved outwardly (away from a centerof the web) in the cross-web direction XWD, the cross-web tension on themerged material web 1432 is increased. Likewise, as the cross-web belttensioners 2028 are moved inwardly (in a direction toward a center ofthe web) in the cross-web direction, a reduction in cross-web tension iseffected on the merged material web 1432. Each of the cross-web belttensioners 2028 may be individually controlled to apply a differentamount of cross-web tension on the merged material web 1432 at differentpoints along the path of travel of the merged material web 1432.Accordingly, the cross-web belt tensioners 2028 function to facilitateflattening (e.g., de-wrinkling, de-curling, de-sagging, etc.) of themerged material web 1432. In some embodiments a cross-web belt tensionwithin the range of 0 to 50 percent of the rupture strength of outerperforations 608 is provided by the cross-web belt tensioners 2028. Inembodiments, the cross-web belt tensioners 2028 are beneficial toprevent misalignment of the fiducial features 602 due to deformationcaused by sagging, wrinkling or curving by flattening the mergedmaterial web 1432.

In some embodiments, if sufficient down-web tension is applied to themerged material web 1432 by synchronization sprockets 2006, the mergedmaterial web 1432 may stretch in the down-web direction, causing thefiducial features 602 to be spaced further apart in the down-webdirection than intended. In such embodiments, the toothed belt 2002 iscontrolled to reduce its speed, which causes a corresponding reductionin the down-web tension on the merged material web 1432 in the webdirection WD, or alternatively the toothed belt 2002 may be controlledto increase speed which causes a corresponding increase in the tensionon the merged material web 1432 in the web direction WD.

During the punching operation, the electrode sub-unit 2018 is configuredto separate from the merged material web 1432 in a predetermined mannerdefined by the strength of the outer perforations 608 and the innerperforations 610 (FIG. 1 n one embodiment, the outer perforations have alower rupture strength (i.e., break easier) than the inner perforations610. In this embodiment, the electrode sub-unit 2018 will separate fromthe merged material web along a path defined by the outer perforations608 and the lengthwise edge cuts 600.

In one embodiment, a predetermined number of electrode sub-units 2018are stacked on receiving unit 2010 to form a multi-unit electrode stack2030 (FIG. 24C). It should be appreciated that each of the stackedelectrode sub-units 2018 are aligned such that respective fiducialfeatures 602, lengthwise edge cuts 600 and perforations 608, 610 arealigned in the web direction WD and cross-web direction XWD. Themulti-unit electrode stack 2030 is then placed in a pressurizedconstraint 1602 having pressure plates 1604, 1606 which apply pressureto the multi-unit electrode stack 2030 in the directions shown bypressure arrows P. The pressure applied to the multi-unit electrodestack 2030 may be adjustable using the user interface 116 to control thepressure P applied by the pressure plates 1604, 1606 to the multi-unitelectrode stack 2030. Once a sufficient pressure P has been applied tothe multi-unit electrode stack 2030, alignment pins 1600 may be moved ina removal direction R, which causes second perforation 610 to rupturealong its length, such that the ablations 404 (e.g., electrode tabs 520)become the outer edges of multi-unit electrode stack 2030, as shown inFIG. 16C.

After the perforations 610 have ruptured, the multi-unit electrode stack2030 proceeds to a tab welding station to weld bus bars 1700 and 1702 tothe ablations 404 to form stacked cell 1704. Prior to welding, the busbars 1700, 1702 are placed through the bus bar openings 1608 of therespective electrode. In one embodiment, once the bus bars 1700, 1702have been placed through the bus bar openings 1608, the ablations 404are folded down toward bus bars 1700, 1702 respectively, prior towelding. In this embodiment, bus bar 1700 is a copper bus bar and iswelded to the ablations 404 (anode tabs) of the anode current collectorlayer 506, and bus bar 1702 is an aluminum bus bar and is welded to theablations 404 (cathode tabs) of the cathode current collector layer 510.However, in other embodiments, the bus bars 1700 and 1702 may be anysuitable conductive material to allow battery 1804 to function asdescribed herein. The welds may be made using a laser welder, frictionwelding, ultrasonic welding or any suitable welding method for weldingbus bars 1700, 1702 to the electrode tabs 520. In one embodiment, eachof the bus bars 1700 and 1702 are in electrical contact with all of theelectrode tabs 520 for the anode and cathode, respectively.

Upon formation of the stacked cell 1704, the stacked cell proceeds to apackaging station 1800. At the packaging station 1800, the stacked cell1704 is coated with an insulating packaging material, such as amulti-layer aluminum polymer material, plastic, or the like, to form abattery package 1802. In one embodiment, the battery package 1802 isevacuated using a vacuum and filled through an opening (not shown) withan electrolyte material. The insulating packaging material may be sealedaround stacked cell 1704 using a heat seal, laser weld, adhesive or anysuitable sealing method. The bus bars 1700 and 1702 remain exposed, andare not covered by battery package 1802 to allow a user to connect thebus bars to a device to be powered, or to a battery charger. Once thebattery package 1802 is placed on stacked cell 1704, it defines acompleted battery 1804. In this embodiment, the completed battery is a3-D lithium ion type battery. In other embodiments, the completedbattery may be any battery type suitable for production using thedevices and methods described herein. In some embodiments, the battery1804 comprises one or more electrode sub-units 2900 a-f, or unit cells3300, as described further herein.

In one embodiment, each member of the anode population has a bottom, atop, and a longitudinal axis A_(E) (FIG. 7 ). In one embodiment, thelongitudinal axis A_(E) extends in the cross-web direction XWD from thebottom to the top thereof. In an alternative embodiment, thelongitudinal axis A_(E) extends in the down-web direction WD from thebottom to the top thereof. In one embodiment, a member of the anodepopulation is formed from the web of base material 104 being anodematerial 502. Additionally, each member of the anode population has alength (L_(E)) (FIG. 6A) measured along the longitudinal axis (A_(E)) ofthe electrode, a width (W_(E)) measured in the direction in which thealternating sequence of negative electrode structures and positiveelectrode structures progresses (i.e., the web direction WD), and aheight (H_(E)) (FIG. 6A) measured in a direction (“Z-direction”) that isorthogonal to each of the directions of measurement of the length(L_(E)) and the width (W_(E)). Each member of the anode population alsohas a perimeter (PE) that corresponds to the sum of the length(s) of theside(s) of a projection of the electrode in a plane that is normal toits longitudinal axis.

The length (L_(E)) of the members of the anode population members willvary depending upon the energy storage device and its intended use. Ingeneral, however, the members of the anode populations will typicallyhave a length (L_(E)) in the range of about 5 mm to about 500 mm. Forexample, in one such embodiment, the members of the anode populationhave a length (L_(E)) of about 10 mm to about 250 mm. By way of furtherexample, in one such embodiment the members of the anode population havea length (L_(E)) of about 25 mm to about 100 mm.

The width (W_(E)) of the members of the anode population will also varydepending upon the energy storage device and its intended use. Ingeneral, however, each member of the anode population will typicallyhave a width (W_(E)) within the range of about 0.01 mm to 2.5 mm. Forexample, in one embodiment, the width (W_(E)) of each member of theanode population will be in the range of about 0.025 mm to about 2 mm.By way of further example, in one embodiment, the width (W_(E)) of eachmember of the anode population will be in the range of about 0.05 mm toabout 1 mm.

The height (H_(E)) of the members of the anode population will also varydepending upon the energy storage device and its intended use. Ingeneral, however, members of the anode population will typically have aheight (H_(E)) within the range of about 0.05 mm to about 10 mm. Forexample, in one embodiment, the height (H_(E)) of each member of theanode population will be in the range of about 0.05 mm to about 5 mm. Byway of further example, in one embodiment, the height (H_(E)) of eachmember of the anode population will be in the range of about 0.1 mm toabout 1 mm. According to one embodiment, the members of the anodepopulation include one or more first electrode members having a firstheight, and one or more second electrode members having a second heightthat is other than the first. In yet another embodiment, the differentheights for the one or more first electrode members and one or moresecond electrode members may be selected to accommodate a predeterminedshape for an electrode assembly (e.g., multi-layer sub-stack 1501 (FIG.15 )), such as an electrode assembly shape having a different heightsalong one or more of the longitudinal and/or transverse axis, and/or toprovide predetermined performance characteristics for the secondarybattery.

In general, members of the anode population have a length (L_(E)) thatis substantially greater than each of its width (W_(E)) and its height(H_(E)). For example, in one embodiment, the ratio of L_(E) to each ofW_(E) and H_(E) is at least 5:1, respectively (that is, the ratio ofL_(E) to W_(E) is at least 5:1, respectively and the ratio of L_(E) toH_(E) is at least 5:1, respectively), for each member of the anodepopulation. By way of further example, in one embodiment the ratio ofL_(E) to each of W_(E) and H_(E) is at least 10:1. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment, the ratio of L_(E) to each of W_(E) andH_(E) is at least 15:1. By way of further example, in one embodiment,the ratio of L_(E) to each of W_(E) and H_(E) is at least 20:1, for eachmember of the anode population.

In one embodiment, the ratio of the height (H_(E)) to the width (W_(E))of the members of the anode population is at least 0.4:1, respectively.For example, in one embodiment, the ratio of H_(E) to W_(E) will be atleast 2:1, respectively, for each member of the anode population. By wayof further example, in one embodiment the ratio of H_(E) to W_(E) willbe at least 10:1, respectively. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the ratio of H_(E) to W_(E) will be at least 20:1,respectively. Typically, however, the ratio of H_(E) to W_(E) willgenerally be less than 1,000:1, respectively. For example, in oneembodiment the ratio of H_(E) to W_(E) will be less than 500:1,respectively. By way of further example, in one embodiment the ratio ofH_(E) to W_(E) will be less than 100:1, respectively. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment the ratio of H_(E) to W_(E) will be less than10:1, respectively. By way of further example, in one embodiment theratio of H_(E) to W_(E) will be in the range of about 2:1 to about100:1, respectively, for each member of the anode population.

In one embodiment, a member of the cathode population is formed from theweb of base material 104 being cathode material 504. Referring now toFIG. 6B, each member of the cathode population has a bottom, a top, anda longitudinal axis (A_(CE)) extending from the bottom to the topthereof in the cross-web direction XWD and in a direction generallyperpendicular to the direction in which the alternating sequence ofnegative electrode structures and positive electrode structuresprogresses. Additionally, each member of the cathode population has alength (L_(CE)) measured along the longitudinal axis (A_(CE)) which isparallel to the cross-web direction XWD, a width (W_(CE)) measured inthe down-web direction WD in which the alternating sequence of negativeelectrode structures and positive electrode structures progresses, and aheight (H_(CE)) measured in a direction that is perpendicular to each ofthe directions of measurement of the length (L_(CE)) and the width(W_(CE)).

The length (L_(CE)) of the members of the cathode population will varydepending upon the energy storage device and its intended use. Ingeneral, however, each member of the cathode population will typicallyhave a length (L_(CE)) in the range of about 5 mm to about 500 mm. Forexample, in one such embodiment, each member of the cathode populationhas a length (L_(CE)) of about 10 mm to about 250 mm. By way of furtherexample, in one such embodiment each member of the cathode populationhas a length (L_(CE)) of about 25 mm to about 100 mm.

The width (W_(CE)) of the members of the cathode population will alsovary depending upon the energy storage device and its intended use. Ingeneral, however, members of the cathode population will typically havea width (W_(CE)) within the range of about 0.01 mm to 2.5 mm. Forexample, in one embodiment, the width (W_(CE)) of each member of thecathode population will be in the range of about 0.025 mm to about 2 mm.By way of further example, in one embodiment, the width (W_(CE)) of eachmember of the cathode population will be in the range of about 0.05 mmto about 1 mm.

The height (H_(CE)) of the members of the cathode population will alsovary depending upon the energy storage device and its intended use. Ingeneral, however, members of the cathode population will typically havea height (H_(CE)) within the range of about 0.05 mm to about 10 mm. Forexample, in one embodiment, the height (H_(CE)) of each member of thecathode population will be in the range of about 0.05 mm to about 5 mm.By way of further example, in one embodiment, the height (H_(CE)) ofeach member of the cathode population will be in the range of about 0.1mm to about 1 mm. According to one embodiment, the members of thecathode population include one or more first cathode members having afirst height, and one or more second cathode members having a secondheight that is other than the first. In yet another embodiment, thedifferent heights for the one or more first cathode members and one ormore second cathode members may be selected to accommodate apredetermined shape for an electrode assembly, such as an electrodeassembly shape having a different heights along one or more of thelongitudinal and/or transverse axis, and/or to provide predeterminedperformance characteristics for the secondary battery.

In general, each member of the cathode population has a length (L_(CE))that is substantially greater than width (W_(CE)) and substantiallygreater than its height (H_(CE)). For example, in one embodiment, theratio of L_(CE) to each of W_(CE) and H_(CE) is at least 5:1,respectively (that is, the ratio of L_(CE) to W_(CE) is at least 5:1,respectively and the ratio of L_(CE) to H_(CE) is at least 5:1,respectively), for each member of the cathode population. By way offurther example, in one embodiment the ratio of L_(CE) to each of W_(CE)and H_(CE) is at least 10:1 for each member of the cathode population.By way of further example, in one embodiment, the ratio of L_(CE) toeach of W_(CE) and H_(CE) is at least 15:1 for each member of thecathode population. By way of further example, in one embodiment, theratio of L_(CE) to each of W_(CE) and H_(CE) is at least 20:1 for eachmember of the cathode population.

In one embodiment, the ratio of the height (H_(CE)) to the width(W_(CE)) of the members of the cathode population is at least 0.4:1,respectively. For example, in one embodiment, the ratio of H_(CE) toW_(CE) will be at least 2:1, respectively, for each member of thecathode population. By way of further example, in one embodiment theratio of H_(CE) to W_(CE) will be at least 10:1, respectively, for eachmember of the cathode population. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the ratio of H_(CE) to W_(CE) will be at least 20:1,respectively, for each member of the cathode population. Typically,however, the ratio of H_(CE) to W_(CE) will generally be less than1,000:1, respectively, for each member of the anode population. Forexample, in one embodiment the ratio of H_(CE) to W_(CE) will be lessthan 500:1, respectively, for each member of the cathode population. Byway of further example, in one embodiment the ratio of H_(CE) to W_(CE)will be less than 100:1, respectively. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the ratio of H_(CE) to W_(CE) will be less than 10:1,respectively. By way of further example, in one embodiment the ratio ofH_(CE) to WM will be in the range of about 2:1 to about 100:1,respectively, for each member of the cathode population.

In one embodiment, anode current collector 506 also has an electricalconductance that is substantially greater than the electricalconductance of the negative electrode active material layer. Forexample, in one embodiment the ratio of the electrical conductance ofanode current collector 506 to the electrical conductance of thenegative electrode active material layer is at least 100:1 when there isan applied current to store energy in the device or an applied load todischarge the device. By way of further example, in some embodiments theratio of the electrical conductance of anode current collector 506 tothe electrical conductance of the negative electrode active materiallayer is at least 500:1 when there is an applied current to store energyin the device or an applied load to discharge the device. By way offurther example, in some embodiments the ratio of the electricalconductance of anode current collector 506 to the electrical conductanceof the negative electrode active material layer is at least 1000:1 whenthere is an applied current to store energy in the device or an appliedload to discharge the device. By way of further example, in someembodiments the ratio of the electrical conductance of anode currentcollector 506 to the electrical conductance of the negative electrodeactive material layer is at least 5000:1 when there is an appliedcurrent to store energy in the device or an applied load to dischargethe device. By way of further example, in some embodiments the ratio ofthe electrical conductance of anode current collector 506 to theelectrical conductance of the negative electrode active material layeris at least 10,000:1 when there is an applied current to store energy inthe device or an applied load to discharge the device.

In general, the cathode current collector layer 510 may comprise a metalsuch as aluminum, carbon, chromium, gold, nickel, NiP, palladium,platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, an alloy of silicon and nickel, titanium,or a combination thereof (see “Current collectors for positiveelectrodes of lithium-based batteries” by A. H. Whitehead and M.Schreiber, Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 152(11) A2105-A2113(2005)). By way of further example, in one embodiment, cathode currentcollector layer 510 comprises gold or an alloy thereof such as goldsilicide. By way of further example, in one embodiment, cathode currentcollector layer 510 comprises nickel or an alloy thereof such as nickelsilicide.

Spacers

With reference to FIGS. 27-32D, embodiments of the disclosure havingspacer members are described. In one embodiment, the spacer members 2700a-d are added to web of base material 104. In other embodiments, thespacer members 2700 a-d are added to one or more of webs of electrodematerial 1402, 1404, and 1406. In one embodiment, the spacer members2700 a-d are continuous or discontinuous strips of organic or inorganicmaterial. The spacer members 2700 a-d may be continuous or discontinuousin one or more of the Z-Axis and X-Axis. In some embodiments, the spacermembers 2700 a-d are made from an electrically insulating materialand/or ionically permeable polymeric woven material. In one embodiment,the spacer members 2700 a-d are made from the same material as separatorlayer 500 or separator material 1406. In some embodiments, spacermembers 2700 a-d comprise polyethylene terephthalate (PET) or Polyimide(PI). In other embodiments, the spacer members 2700 a-d comprise anelectrically conductive material. It is noted that although spacermembers are referenced as spacer members 2700 a-d, there may be anynumber of spacer members from 1 or more, and in some embodiments, nospacer members are used.

In general, the spacer members comprise a spacer material comprising apolymeric material, a composite such as adhesive tape, electrode currentcollector, electrode active material, counter-electrode active material,counter-electrode current collector, separator material, or a materialthat is chemically inert (in the battery environment). For example, inone embodiment the spacer members comprise an anodically active materialhaving the capacity to accept carrier ions; in this embodiment, it isgenerally preferred that the anodically active material comprisegraphite, graphene, or other anodically active material having acapacity for carrier ions that is less than one mole of carrier ion permole of spacer material. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe spacer members comprise a cathodically active material having thecapacity to accept carrier ions. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the spacer members may comprise a polymeric material (e.g., ahomopolymer, copolymer or polymer blend); in such embodiments, thespacer member may comprise a fluoropolymer derived from monomerscontaining vinylidene fluoride, hexafluoropropylene, tetrafluoropropene,a polyolefin such as polyethylene, polypropylene, or polybutene,ethylene-diene-propene terpolymer, polystyrene, polymethyl methacrylate,polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl butyral, polyacetal,and polyethyleneglycol diacrylate, methyl cellulose, carboxymethylcellulose, styrene rubber, butadiene rubber, styrene-butadiene rubber,isoprene rubber, polyacrylamide, polyvinyl ether, polyacrylic acid,polymethacrylic acid, polyacrylonitrile, polyvinylidene fluoridepolyacrylonitrile, polyethylene oxide, acrylates, styrenes, epoxies,silicones, polyvinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene,polyvinylidene fluoride-co-trichloroethylene, polymethylmethacrylate,polyacrylonitrile, polyvinylpyrrolidone, polyvinyl acetate,polyethylene-co-vinyl acetate, polyethylene oxide, cellulose acetate,cellulose acetate butyrate, cellulose acetate propionate,cyanoethylpullulan, cyanoethyl polyvinylalcohol, cyanoethylcellulose,cyanoethylsucrose, pullulan, carboxymetyl cellulose,acrylonitrile-styrene-butadiene copolymer, polyimide, polyvinylidenefluoride-hexafluoro propylene, polyvinylidenefluoride-trichloroethylene, polymethyl methacrylate, polyacrylonitrile,polyvinyl pyrrolidone, polyvinyl acetate, ethylene vinyl acetatecopolymer, polyethylene oxide, cellulose acetate, cellulose acetatebutyrate, cellulose acetate propionate, cyanoethyl pullulan, cyanoethylpolyvinyl alcohol, cyanoethyl cellulose, cyanoethyl sucrose, pullulan,carboxyl methyl cellulose, acrylonitrile styrene butadiene copolymer,polyimide, polyethylene terephthalate, polybutylene terephthalate,polyester, polyacetal, polyamide, polyetheretherketone, polyethersulfone, polyphenylene oxide, polyphenylene sulfide, polyethylenenaphthalene, and/or combinations or a copolymer thereof.

In one embodiment, the spacer members are in the form of an adhesivetape having a base and an adhesive layer provided on one surface of thebase. The composition of the adhesive tape base is not particularlylimited, and various bases known to be usable for the adhesive tape canbe used. In general, plastic films are preferred and specific examplesinclude polyolefin films such as a polyethylene, polypropylene,polyethylene terephthalate, a polybutylene terephthalate, polyphenylenesulfide, polyimide, or polyamide film. In some embodiments, polyolefin,polyethylene terephthalate and polyimide films may be preferred in termsof heat resistance and chemical resistance suitable for the batteryapplication. The adhesive tape base may have a thickness in the range ofabout 4 to 200 μm, e.g., in the range of 6 to 150 μm, or even about 25to 100 μm. The adhesive constituting the adhesive layer of the adhesivetape may comprise, for example, a rubber-based adhesive, an acrylicadhesive, a silicone-based adhesive or a combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the spacer members 2700 a-d may be continuous(e.g., a continuous tape or ribbon) in the Z-Axis direction, can bediscontinuous (e.g., a series of discontinuous strips, protrusions orthe like) in the Z-Axis or X-Axis directions (or both), or can be porous(e.g., having void space within the volume of the spacer members 2700a-d.

In one embodiment, the spacer members 2700 a-d may be applied to the webof base material 104 prior to any or all of the splicing, cutting orperforating operations described herein. In other embodiments, thespacer members 2700 a,b are applied after one or more of the splicing,cutting or perforating operations described herein. In embodiments wherethe spacer members 2700 a-d are applied prior to splicing, cutting orperforating operations described herein, the spacer member will alsohave one or more of the splicing, cutting or perforating operationsdescribed herein, such as to cut through holes 2704 therein (FIG. 27 ).The through holes 2704 are sized, shaped and positioned to align withthe through holes 704 of web of base material 104. In one embodiment,the process described herein as used to cut through holes 704 in web ofbase material 104 may be similarly used to cut through holes 2704 in thespacer members 2700 a-d. The spacer members 2700 a-d have a width W_(s1)in the Y-Axis direction, a length L_(s1) in the X-Axis direction and aheight H_(s1) in the Z-Axis direction (FIGS. 27 and 28 ). The X-Axis,Y-Axis and Z-Axis directions are each mutually perpendicular and relateto a x,y,z Cartesian coordinate system. The width W_(s1) may bepredetermined such that when an electrode sub-unit is assembled, thespacer member increases the distance in the Y-Axis direction betweenadjacent layers of the sub-unit by a specified amount. It is noted thatweb of base material, in embodiments, may be any of separator layer 500,an anode material 502 or a cathode material 504.

In one embodiment, the width W_(s1) is greater than or equal to 50percent of the cathodically active material layer 512 width in theY-Axis direction. In yet another embodiment, the width W_(s1) is greaterthan or equal to 50 percent of the cathodically active material layer512 plus the width of the cathode current collector layer 510 width inthe Y-Axis direction. In another embodiment, the width W_(s1) is greaterthan or equal to 50 percent of the cathodically active material layer512 plus a width of the expansion gap 3002 W_(G) in the Y-Axisdirection.

In one embodiment, the spacer members 2700 a-d are a tape materialhaving an adhesive applied to first surface 2720 of the spacer memberthat secures the spacer members 2700 a-d to the web of base material104. In some embodiments, the adhesive is a strong adhesive thatpermanently secures the spacer members 2700 a-d to the web of basematerial 104. In other embodiments, the adhesive is a weak adhesive thatremovably secures the spacer members 2700 a-d to the web of basematerial 104. As used herein, the strong adhesive is defined as anadhesive having sufficient strength wherein the spacer member 2700 a-dcannot be removed from the web of base material 104 without damage toone or both of the spacer members 2700 a,b or 2700 c,d and/or the web ofbase material 104. As used herein, a weak adhesive is defined as havingsufficient strength to adhere the spacer members 2700 a-d to the web ofbase material 104 but allow the spacer members to be removed withoutcausing material damage to at least the web of base material 104. Inembodiments using the weak adhesive, when removed it is preferred thatthe adhesive layer does not leave any residue on the web of basematerial 104. In another embodiment, the spacer member has an adhesiveapplied to both a first surface 2720 and a second opposing surface 2721.In this embodiment, a release layer may be applied to second surface2021 that is removed before adhering to an adjacent layer. In yet otherembodiments, the spacer members 2700 a-d are applied without beingadhered to any layer. In another embodiment, the spacer members 2700 a-dare applied using a printing process, such as a 3-D printing process. Instill another embodiment, the spacer members 2700 a-d are applied bymelting or welding the spacer members 2700 a-d to the respective layer.

In yet another embodiment, the spacer members may be added during one ormore of the merging and stacking operations as described herein. Forexample, in one embodiment, an additional spool of spacer membermaterial is unwound and merged into the merged material web at thedesired location between adjacent layers of the merged material web. Inthis embodiment, the spacer members may form part of a web of materialthat is merged in a manner similar to the webs from spools of electrodematerials 1402, 1404 and 1406. In yet another embodiment, the spacermembers may form two separate ribbons, one for each of 2700 a and 2700b, wherein each of the ribbons is conveyed using its own tractor holeand merged using a process similar to that described with merging thewebs from spools of electrode materials 1402, 1404 and 1406.

In yet another embodiment, with reference to FIG. 35 , the spacermembers are added during the stacking operation. In this embodiment, afirst electrode, such as anode current collector layer 506 andanodically active material layer 508, is stacked onto the receiver 2014.Subsequently a separator 500 is stacked thereupon. Next, a pair ofindividual spacer members 3700 a,b are stacked onto the separator 500.The individual spacer members 3700 a,b may be made of similar materialto spacer members 2700 a,b and may be similarly sized and shaped.However, in this embodiment, each of the individual spacer members 3700a,b are each pressed down the alignment pins 2012 during the stackingprocess, rather than having been merged into a merged material web. Theindividual spacer members 3700 a,b may be ring shaped, having a centerbore that is sized and shaped to correspond to the alignment pins 2012,such that each of the individual spacer members may be slid down thealignment pins into position without binding or material damage. Afterthe individual spacer members 3700 a,b are stacked onto the separator500, a cathode layer is stacked thereupon. In this embodiment, thecathode layer comprises a shared cathode current collector 510 and has acathodically active material layer 512, 512′ on each opposing sidethereof. In this embodiment, the cathodically active material layer 512has been ablated or otherwise removed in an area that abuts theindividual spacer members 3700 a,b. Because the individual spacermembers 3700 a,b have a width W_(s1) in the Y-Axis direction that isgreater than the width of the cathodically active material layer 512 inthe Y-Axis direction, the expansion gap 3002 is defined between thespacer 500 and the cathodically active material layer 512. Asillustrated, once the individual spacer members 3700 a,b and/or thecathode layer (510,512, 512′) is stacked, the separator 500 folds/bends(e.g., conforms) at its distal ends 501, 503 into the “L” shapeportions. In this embodiment, a second pair of individual spacer members3700 c,d are placed onto the opposing cathodically active material layer512′. In this embodiment, opposing cathodically active material layer512′ has been similarly ablated, or otherwise had the cathodicallyactive material removed from the area abutting the individual spacerlayers 3700 c,d. Accordingly, the length of the cathodically activematerial layers in the X-axis direction, plus the length of the pair ofindividual spacer layers 3700 a,b in the X-axis direction is equivalentto the length in the X-axis direction of the cathode current collector510. In this embodiment, a second pair of individual spacer members 3700c,d are placed onto the opposing cathodically active material layer512′. A second separator 500′ is similarly stacked onto the individualspacer members 3700 c,d. In one embodiment, the width W_(s1) of each ofthe second pair of spacer members 3700 c,d is greater than the width ofthe cathodically active material layer 512′, thus creating a secondexpansion gap (not shown) between spacer 500′ and cathodically activematerial layer 512′. In one embodiment, a mirror image anode layer,comprising anodically active material layer 508′ and anode currentcollector 506′ is stacked onto separator layer 500′, completing anelectrode sub-unit assembly. It is noted that, in some embodiments theseparator 500′ folds/bends (e.g., conforms) at its distal ends into “L”shape portions, in a manner similar to separator 500. In someembodiments, the above process may be repeated any number of times untila desired number of sub-units have been stacked.

In one embodiment, the spacer members 2700 a-d are positioned such thatthe entirety of the spacer members 2700 a-d are inside, in a cross-webdirection toward an electrode center point 2702, of an outer boundarydefined by the inner perforations 608. In other embodiments, the spacermembers 2700 a,b may be positioned partially overlapping the innerperforations 608 or outer perforations 610. With respect to the use andplacement of the spacer members 2700 a-d, such may similarly be appliedto one or more of webs of electrode material 1402, 1404, and 1406 oranode current collector layer 506, anodically active material layer 508,separator 500, cathodically active material layer 512 and cathodecurrent collector 510 in a manner substantially similar to thatdescribed above with respect to web of base material 104.

Use of the spacer members 2700 a-d will now be described with respect tostacked electrode sub-units 2900 a-d and stacked cells 2904. Electrodesub-units 2900 a-d are similar to electrode sub-units 2018, exceptelectrode sub-units 2900 a-e include one or more spacer members 2700a-d. Stacked cell 2904 is similar to stacked cell 1704, except stackedcell 2904 is assembled using one or more of electrode sub units 2900a-d. The stacked cell 2904 may include one or more electrode sub-units2900 a-e, such as from 1 to 100 electrode sub-units 2900 a-d. In otherembodiments, stacked cell 2904 may include any number of electrodesub-units 2900 a-d as may be desired for a particular application.

Electrode sub-units 2900 a-f are now described with reference to FIGS.29 and 30A-F. As shown in FIG. 30A, a cross section taken along sectionline 30A-D of stacked cell 2904 illustrates a cross-section of anelectrode sub-unit 2900 a of a population of electrode sub-units 2900 aof stacked cell 2904. In this embodiment, each electrode sub-unit 2900 aincludes a cathode (counter-electrode) current collector layer 510, acathodically active layer (counter-electrode) 512, separator layer 500,anodically active material layer (electrode) 508, anode currentcollector layer 506 and spacer members 2700 a,b. In this embodiment, thespacer members 2700 a,b are positioned directly adjacent separator layer500 in a manner such that separator layer is folded at each distal end3000 a,b (in the cross-web direction) to have an “L-shape” 3008 to be incontact with cathode current collector layer 510. In this embodiment,the spacer members 2700 a,b extend from a lower boundary 3006 of anodecurrent collector 506 to a region vertically within (in the Z-direction)between upper 3004 and lower 3010 boundaries of the cathodically activematerial layer 512. In this embodiment, the spacer member 2700 a,b areeach of a sufficient width W_(s1) that an expansion gap 3002 is definedbetween separator layer 500 and anodically active material layer 508.The width Wo is controlled such that the expansion gap 3002 has a widthW_(G) as specified. In embodiments, the height HG is set to be from 0micrometer (e.g., no gap) to 1000 micrometers, such as 1 μm, 2 μm, 5 μm,10 μm, 20 μm, 50 μm, 100 μm, 200 μm, 300 μm, 400 μm, 500 μm, 600 μm, 700μm, 800 μm, 900 μm or 1000 μm, or greater.

In some embodiments, the location at which the spacer members 2700 a-dare positioned in the cross-web direction is referred to as the margins2701 a,b. The margin 2701 a,b is defined as extending from the outsideedge 2750 of the web (or electrode sub-unit, or unit cell) to the insideedge 2752 of the spacer member 2700 a-d. This region of the electrodelayers corresponding to the margins 2701 a,b of the counter-electrode(e.g., comprising the cathode current collector layer 510 and thecathodically active material layer 512) and/or the electrode (e.g.,comprising the anode current collector 506 and the anodically activematerial layer 508) may be referred to as the flank portions of thecounter-electrode or electrode. In other words, the flank portions (3027a,b) (See FIG. 30A) are, in some embodiments, the portion of the anodelayer or cathode layer that are aligned with or abut to the spacermembers. The region of the anode layer or cathode layer in between theflank portions 3027 a,b may be referred to as the central portion, ormain body portion thereof.

In some embodiments, the margins 2701 a,b (e.g., first edge margin 2701a and second edge margin 2701 b) includes for a unit cell, in thecross-web direction, the anode (e.g., electrode) current collector layer506, the separator layer 500, and the cathode (e.g., counter-electrode)current collector layer 510, and spacer member 2700 a-d (e.g., a tapespacer), each of the tape spacers being adhered to at least one of (i)the electrode current collector, (ii) the electrode layer, (iii) theseparator, and (iv) the counter-electrode current collector. The mainbody 2725 is the portion of the web, electrode sub-unit, or unit cellproximal of the spacer member 2700 a-d, in a cross-web direction, to acenter of the electrode sub-unit 2900 a-d (i.e., the area betweenmargins 2701 a and 2701 b. The main body 2725 includes, in theZ-direction, one or more of each of the anode (e.g., electrode) currentcollector layer 506, anodically active material layer 508, the separatorlayer 500, the cathode (e.g., counter-electrode) current collector layer510, cathodically active material layer 512 and an expansion gap 3002,but no spacer member 2700 a-d. In another embodiment, each electrodesub-unit 2900 b includes a cathode (counter-electrode) current collectorlayer 510, a cathodically active layer (counter-electrode) 512,separator layer 500, anodically active material layer (electrode) 508,anode current collector layer 506 and spacer members 2700 a,b. In thisembodiment, the spacer members 2700 a,b are positioned directly adjacentseparator layer 500 in a manner such that separator layer is folded/bent(e.g., conformed) at each distal end 3000 a,b (in the cross-webdirection) to have an “L-shape” 3008 to be in contact with cathodecurrent collector layer 510. In this embodiment, the spacer members 2700a,b extend from a lower boundary 3006 of anode current collector 506 toan region vertically aligned with the upper boundary 3004 of thecathodically active material layer 512. In this embodiment, the spacermember 2700 a,b are each of a sufficient width Wo that an expansion gap3002 is defined between separator layer 500 and anodically activematerial layer 508. The width Wo is controlled such that the expansiongap 3002 has a height W_(G) as specified. In embodiments, the widthW_(G) is set to be from 0 micrometer (e.g., no gap) to 1000 micrometers,such as 1 μm, 2 μm, 5 μm, 10 μm, 20 μm, 50 μm, 100 μm, 200 μm, 300 μm,400 μm, 500 μm, 600 μm, 700 μm, 800 μm, 900 μm or 1000 μm or greater.

In some embodiments, the spacer members 2700 a-d have a length L_(s1) inthe X-Axis direction. The length L_(s1) is equivalent to an offset inthe X-Axis direction of the anodically active material layer and/or thecathodically active material layer that has been ablated or otherwiseremoved (e.g., from distal ends 3015 a, 3015 b and 3021 a, 3021 b asshown in FIGS. 30E and 30F). In embodiments, the length L_(s1) of thespacer members 2700 a-d is set to be from 0 micrometers to 500micrometers, such as 100 micrometers, 200 micrometers, 300 micrometers,400 micrometers or 500 micrometers or more, as measured in the X-axisdirection, thus creating an equivalent offset of from 0 micrometers to500 micrometers, such as 100 micrometers, 200 micrometers, 300micrometers, 400 micrometers or 500 micrometers or more.

In some embodiments, the flank portions 3027 a,b of the counterelectrode layer (cathode current collector 510 and cathodically activematerial layer 512 together) have a width in the Y-axis direction thatis less than or equal to 50 percent of the width of the central portionof the counter electrode, such as less than 40 percent the width of thecentral portion, or such as less than 20 percent the width of thecentral portion, or such as less than 10 percent the width of thecentral portion.

The volume occupied by the expansion gap 3002 may also be referred to asa void fraction, and expressed as a ratio of open space (i.e., the void)to active material within the stacked cell 2904. A higher void fraction,or larger expansion gap 3002, is provided by having an increased widthW_(G) facilitated by spacer members 2700 a,b with increased widthW_(s1). As a general rule, a larger expansion gap 3002 provides thestacked cell for more room for the active materials, which in someembodiments, may swell during discharge or charging operations. However,in some embodiments, increased expansion gap 3002 size comes at theexpense of battery capacity, since the expansion gap 3002 and the tapespacers 2700 a,b do not constitute active material and thus do not addto the theoretical battery capacity for the stacked cell 2904.

As shown in FIG. 30B, another embodiment is shown where a cross sectiontaken along section line 30A-D of stacked cell 2904 illustrates across-section of an electrode sub-unit 2900 b of a population ofelectrode sub-units 2900 b of stacked cell 2904. In this embodiment,each electrode sub-unit 2900 b includes a cathode (counter-electrode)current collector layer 510, a cathodically active layer(counter-electrode) 512, separator layer 500, anodically active materiallayer (electrode) 508, anode current collector layer 506 and spacermembers 2700 a,b. In this embodiment, the spacer members 2700 a,b arepositioned directly adjacent separator layer 500 in a manner such thatseparator layer is folded/bent (e.g., conformed) at each distal end 3000a,b (in the cross-web direction) to have an “L-shape” 3008 to be incontact with anodically active material layer 508. In this embodiment,the spacer members 2700 a,b extend from a lower boundary 3007 ofanodically active material layer 508 to an region vertically alignedwith the upper boundary 3004 of the cathodically active material layer512. In this embodiment, the spacer member 2700 a,b are each of asufficient width Wo that an expansion gap 3002 is defined betweenseparator layer 500 and anodically active material layer 508. The widthWo is controlled such that the expansion gap 3002 has a width W_(G) asspecified. In embodiments, the width W_(G) is set to be from 0micrometer (e.g., no gap) to 1000 micrometers, such as 1 μm, 2 μm, 5 μm,10 μm, 20 μm, 50 μm, 100 μm, 200 μm, 300 μm, 400 μm, 500 μm, 600 μm 700μm 800 μm 900 μm or 1000 μm or greater.

As shown in FIG. 30C, another embodiment is shown where a cross sectiontaken along section line 30A-D of stacked cell 2904 illustrates across-section of an electrode sub-unit 2900 c of a population ofelectrode sub-units 2900 c of stacked cell 2904. This embodiment issimilar to that shown in FIG. 30B, except that the anode and cathodelayers are swapped, such that the cathode layer is shown on top and theanode layer is shown on bottom. In this embodiment, each electrodesub-unit 2900 b includes a cathode (counter-electrode) current collectorlayer 510, a cathodically active layer (counter-electrode) 512,separator layer 500, anodically active material layer (electrode) 508,anode current collector layer 506 and spacer members 2700 a,b. In thisembodiment, the spacer members 2700 a,b are positioned directly adjacentseparator layer 500 in a manner such that separator layer is folded/bent(e.g., conformed) at each distal end 3000 a,b (in the cross-webdirection) to have an “L-shape” to be in contact with anode currentcollector layer 506. In this embodiment, the spacer members 2700 a,bextend from a lower boundary of cathode current collector layer 510 to aregion vertically aligned with the upper boundary of the anodicallyactive material layer 508. In this embodiment, the spacer member 2700a,b are each of a sufficient width Wo that an expansion gap 3002 isdefined between separator layer 500 and cathodically active materiallayer 512. The width Wo is controlled such that the expansion gap 3002has a width W_(G) as specified. In embodiments, the width W_(G) is setto be from 0 micrometer (e.g., no gap) to 1000 micrometers, such as 1μm, 2 μm, 5 μm, 10 μm, 20 μm, 50 μm, 100 μm, 200 μm, 300 μm, 400 μm, 500μm, 600 μm, 700 μm, 800 μm, 900 μm or 1000 μm or greater.

As shown in FIG. 30D, another embodiment is shown where a cross sectiontaken along section line 30A-D of stacked cell 2904 illustrates across-section of an electrode sub-unit 2900 d of a population ofelectrode sub-units 2900 d of stacked cell 2904. In this embodiment, theelectrode sub-unit 2900 d includes a first anode current collector layer506 a, a first anodically active material layers 508 a, a firstseparator layer 500 a, first expansion gap 3002 a, a first cathodicallyactive material layer 512 a, a cathode current collector layer 510, asecond cathodically active material layer 512 b, a second expansion gap3002 b, a second separator layer 500 b, a second anodically activematerial layer 508 b, a second anode current collector layer 506 b. Thisembodiment also includes spacer members 2700 a,b and second spacermembers 2700 c,d. In this embodiment, the spacer members 2700 a,b arepositioned directly adjacent first separator layer 500 a in a mannersuch that first separator layer 500 a is folded at each distal end 3000a,b (in the cross-web direction) to have an “L-shape” 3008 to be incontact with anode current collector layer 506 a. In this embodiment,the spacer members 2700 a,b extend from the first separator layer 500 aat a position vertically aligned with lower boundary 3012 of anodicallyactive material layer 508 a to an upper boundary 3014 of cathode currentcollector layer 510. Accordingly, spacer members 2700 a,b facilitate theexpansion gap 3002 a being defined between first separator layer 500 aand first cathodically active material layer 512 a. In addition, secondspacer members 2700 c,d are positioned between a lower boundary 3016 ofcathode current collector layer 510 and second separator layer 500 b ata position adjacent second separator layers 2700 c,d that is verticallyaligned with upper boundary 3018 of second anodically active materiallayer 508 b. that is vertically 508. Accordingly, the second expansiongap 3002 b is defined between second cathodically active material layer512 b and second separator layer 500 b. The width W_(s1) is controlledsuch that the expansion gap 3002 a,b has a width W_(Ga) and W_(Gb),respectively, as specified. In embodiments, the width W_(Ga) and W_(Gb)are set to be from 0 micrometer (e.g., no gap) to 1000 micrometers, suchas 1 μm, 2 μm, 5 μm, 10 μm, 20 μm, 50 μm, 100 μm, 200 μm, 300 μm, 400μm, 500 μm, 600 μm 700 μm 800 μm 900 μm or 1000 μm or greater.

As shown in FIG. 30E, another embodiment is shown where a cross sectiontaken along section line 30A-D of stacked cell 2904 illustrates across-section of an electrode sub-unit 2900 e of a population ofelectrode sub-units 2900 e of stacked cell 2904. In this embodiment,each electrode sub-unit 2900 e includes a cathode (counter-electrode)current collector layer 510, a cathodically active layer(counter-electrode) 512, separator layer 500, anodically active materiallayer (electrode) 508, anode current collector layer 506 and spacermembers 2700 a,b. In this embodiment, the spacer members 2700 a,b arepositioned directly adjacent separator layer 500, cathodically activematerial layer 512 and cathode current collector layer 510. In thisembodiment, the spacer members 2700 a,b extend in the Y-axis directionfrom a lower boundary 3011 of separator 500 to an upper boundary 3013 ofthe cathode current collector 510. The cathodically active materiallayer has been ablated or otherwise removed at its distal ends 3015 a,ban amount equivalent to the length L_(s1) of the spacer members 2700a,b, such that the total length in the X-Axis direction of thecathodically active material layer 512 plus the length L_(s1) of bothspacer members 2700 a,b is equal to the length in the X-axis directionof the cathode current collector layer 510. In this embodiment, thespacer member 2700 a,b are each a width W_(s1) that is equivalent to thewidth of the cathodically active material layer 512 in the Y-axisdirection or greater. In embodiments where the width W_(s1) is greaterthan the width of the cathodically active material layer 512 in theY-axis direction, an expansion gap 3002 is defined between cathodicallyactive material layer 512 and separator 500. In embodiments, the widthW_(s1) is controlled such that the expansion gap 3002 has a width W_(G)as specified. In embodiments, the width W_(G) is set to be from 0micrometer (e.g., no gap) to 1000 micrometers, such as 1 μm, 2 μm, 5 μm,10 μm, 20 μm, 50 μm, 100 μm, 200 μm, 300 μm, 400 μm, 500 μm, 600 μm, 700μm, 800 μm 900 μm or 1000 μm or greater.

As shown in FIG. 30F, another embodiment is shown where a cross sectiontaken along section line 30A-D of stacked cell 2904 illustrates across-section of an electrode sub-unit 2900 f of a population ofelectrode sub-units 2900 f of stacked cell 2904. In this embodiment,each electrode sub-unit 2900 f includes a cathode (counter-electrode)current collector layer 510, a cathodically active layer(counter-electrode) 512, separator layer 500, anodically active materiallayer (electrode) 508, anode current collector layer 506 and spacermembers 2700 a-d. In this embodiment, the spacer members 2700 a,b arepositioned directly adjacent separator layer 500, cathodically activematerial layer 512 and cathode current collector layer 510. In thisembodiment, the spacer members 2700 a,b extend in the Y-axis directionfrom a lower boundary 3011 of separator 500 to an upper boundary 3013 ofthe cathode current collector 510. The cathodically active materiallayer has been ablated or otherwise removed at its distal ends 3015 a,ban amount equivalent to the length L_(s1) of the spacer members 2700a,b, such that the total length in the X-Axis direction of thecathodically active material layer 512 plus the length L_(s1) of bothspacer members 2700 a,b is equal to the length in the X-axis directionof the cathode current collector layer 510. In this embodiment, thespacer member 2700 a,b are each a width W_(s1) that is equivalent to thewidth of the cathodically active material layer 512 in the Y-axisdirection or greater. In embodiments where the width W_(s1) is greaterthan the width of the cathodically active material layer 512 in theY-axis direction, an expansion gap 3002 is defined between cathodicallyactive material layer 512 and separator 500. In embodiments, the widthW_(s1) is controlled such that the expansion gap 3002 a has a widthW_(G) as specified. In embodiments, the width W_(G) is set to be from 0micrometer to 1000 micrometers. In this embodiment, the spacer members2700 c,d extend in the Y-axis direction from a upper boundary 3017 ofseparator 500 to a lower boundary 3019 of the anode current collector506. The anodically active material layer 508 has been ablated orotherwise removed at its distal ends 3021 a,b an amount equivalent tothe length L_(s1) of the spacer members 2700 c,d, such that the totallength in the X-Axis direction of the anodically active material layer508 plus the length L_(s1) of both spacer members 2700 c,d is equal tothe length in the X-axis direction of the anode current collector layer506. In this embodiment, the spacer member 2700 c,d are each a widthW_(s1) that is equivalent to the width of the anodically active materiallayer 512 in the Y-axis direction or greater. In embodiments where thewidth W_(s1) is greater than the width of the cathodically activematerial layer 508 in the Y-axis direction, an expansion gap 3002 b isdefined between anodically active material layer 508 and separator 500.In embodiments, the width W_(s1) is controlled such that the expansiongap 3002 b has a width W_(G) as specified. In embodiments, the widthW_(G) is set to be from 0 micrometer (e.g., no gap) to 1000 micrometers,such as 1 μm, 2 μm, 5 μm, 10 μm, 20 μm, 50 μm, 100 μm, 200 μm, 300 μm,400 μm, 500 μm, 600 μm, 700 μm, 800 μm, 900 μm or 1000 μm or greater.

In some embodiments, for example as shown in FIGS. 30A, 30C, 30E and30F, at least a portion of the cathodically active material 512 (e.g.,counter-electrode active material) of the counter-electrode layer (e.g.,comprising cathode current collector 510 and cathodically activematerial layer 512) is located between the spacer members 2700 a,b suchthat the portion of the counter-electrode active material and the spacermembers lie in a common plane defined by the x and z axes.

Additional description of electrode sub-units 2900 a-d are now describedwith reference to FIGS. 31A-D. FIGS. 31A-D illustrate cross-sectionalviews of electrode sub-units 2900 a-d taken along section 31A-D of FIG.29 , and FIGS. 32A-D illustrate cross-sectional views of electrodesub-units 2900 a-d taken along section 32A-D of FIG. 29 .

As shown in FIG. 31A, at the section taken along section 31A-D of FIG.29 , electrode sub-unit 2900 a includes, from left to right, an anodecurrent collector layer 506, an anodically active material layer 508,expansion gap 3002, separator layer 500, cathodically active materiallayer 512 and cathode current collector layer 510. In the embodimentshown, the layers of the electrode sub-unit 2900 a are bounded by acasing 2901 that surrounds the electrode sub-unit 2900 a. Notably, atthis section of the electrode sub-unit 2900 a, the spacer members 2700a,b are not present. However, the expansion gap 3002 facilitated by thespacer members 2700 a,b is present. With reference to FIG. 32 , in thissection of electrode sub-unit 2900 a, the spacer members 2700 a,b arevisible, but the expansion gap 3002 is not.

As shown in FIG. 31B, at the section taken along section 31A-D of FIG.29 , electrode sub-unit 2900 b includes, from left to right, an anodecurrent collector layer 506, an anodically active material layer 508,expansion gap 3002, separator layer 500, cathodically active materiallayer 512 and cathode current collector layer 510. In the embodimentshown, the layers of the electrode sub-unit 2900 a are bounded by acasing 2901 that surrounds the electrode sub-unit 2900 b. Notably, atthis section of the electrode sub-unit 2900 b, the spacer members 2700a,b are not present. However, the expansion gap 3002 facilitated by thespacer members 2700 a,b is present. With reference to FIG. 32B, in thissection of electrode sub-unit 2900 b, the spacer members 2700 a,b arevisible, but the expansion gap 3002 is not.

As shown in FIG. 31C, at the section taken along section 31A-D of FIG.29 , electrode sub-unit 2900 c includes, from left to right, a cathodecurrent collector layer 510, a cathodically active material layer 512,expansion gap 3002, separator layer 500, anodically active materiallayer 508 and anode current collector layer 506. In the embodimentshown, the layers of the electrode sub-unit 2900 c are bounded by acasing 2901 that surrounds the electrode sub-unit 2900 c. Notably, atthis section of the electrode sub-unit 2900 c, the spacer members 2700a,b are not present. However, the expansion gap 3002 facilitated by thespacer members 2700 a,b is present. With reference to FIG. 32C, in thissection of electrode sub-unit 2900 c, the spacer members 2700 a,b arevisible, but the expansion gap 3002 is not.

As shown in FIG. 31D, at the section taken along section 31A-D of FIG.29 , electrode sub-unit 2900 c includes, from left to right, a firstanode current collector layer 506 a, a first anodically active materiallayers 508 a, a first separator layer 500 a, first expansion gap 3002 a,a first cathodically active material layer 512 a, a cathode currentcollector layer 510, a second cathodically active material layer 512 b,a second expansion gap 3002 b, a second separator layer 500 b, a secondanodically active material layer 508 b, a second anode current collectorlayer 506 b. In the embodiment shown, the layers of the electrodesub-unit 2900 c are bounded by a casing 2901 that surrounds theelectrode sub-unit 2900 c. Notably, at this section of the electrodesub-unit 2900 c, the spacer members 2700 a-d are not present. However,the expansion gaps 3002 a,b facilitated by the spacer members 2700 a-dare present. With reference to FIG. 32D, in this section of electrodesub-unit 2900 d, the spacer members 2700 a-d are visible, but theexpansion gaps 3002 a,b are not.

It should be appreciated that a stacked cell may include any number ofelectrode sub-units 2900 a-d in a repeated, stacked arrangement. Whenstacked, the electrode sub-units 2900 a-d are stacked such that aseparator layer 500 is always between adjacent anodically activematerial layers 508 and cathodically active material layers 512 in orderto prevent short circuiting of the stacked cell 2904. As discussedherein, the separator layer 500 is adapted to electrically isolate theanodically active material layer 508 from the cathodically activematerial layer 512 while permitting an exchange of carrier ionstherebetween.

In embodiments, the expansion gaps 3002 (and 3002 a,b) as describedabove are used to provide room for the active materials within thestacked cell 2904 to expand. Upon charge and discharge cycling of abattery 1804 having the stacked cell 2904 carrier ions travel betweenthe electrode (508, 512) and counter-electrode structures (508,512) andcan intercalate into the anodically or cathodically active electrodematerial that is located within the direction of travel. The effect ofintercalation and/or alloying of carrier ions into the electrodematerial can cause the material to swell or expand. Accordingly, thevoid space provided by the expansion gap 3002 allows the material toexpand therein, without causing structural damage to the battery 1804.In some instances, if insufficient void space is provided by expansiongap 3002, or if spacer members 2700 a-d are not used, and thus noexpansion gap is provided, the battery 1804 may swell to a point wherean outer casing thereof ruptures, or internal short-circuits occur.Accordingly, a suitable expansion gap 3002 should be provided usingspacer members 2700 a-d, as required depending on the desiredperformance of the battery 1804 and materials used. In some embodiments,the void fraction in expansion gap volume to active material volume maybe less than 55%, such as less than 50%, less than 45%, less than 40%,and/or even less than 35%. In another embodiment, the void fraction maybe greater than 90%, such as greater than 95%, greater than 98%, and/oreven greater than 99%.

In one embodiment, the spacer members 2700 a-d can comprise anelectrically conductive material so as to maintain electrical connectionbetween the electrode current collector layer and counter-electrodeactive material layer. The spacer members 2700 a-d disposed between theelectrode current collector layer and counter-electrode active materiallayer may also comprise protrusions, a surface roughness, or otherfeatures that impart the intended expansion gap and/or void fraction. Inother embodiments, the spacer members 270 a-d may comprise a materialthat is one or more of ionically, electrically, and electrochemicallycompatible (e.g., does not corrode) with adjacent structures (electrodestructures, counter electrode structures, separators, battery casingmaterials, etc.), or with electrolyte and/or carrier ions in the battery1804 or stacked cell 2904. Furthermore, in a case where the structures(e.g., electrode active materials, counter-electrode current collectors,electrode active materials, counter-electrode current collectors,separators) are themselves provided with protrusions and/or otherfeatures (e.g. surface roughness) that serve a spacer function to effectan expansion gap and/or increased void fraction in a certain region, theprotrusions and/or other features may be similarly compatible withadjacent structures, electrolyte and/or carrier ions in the battery.

In some embodiments, the expansion gap 3002 or calculated void fractionmay be provided over a plurality of electrode sub-units 2900 a-d. Forexample, in one embodiment, the expansion gap 3002 or void fraction in asingle electrode sub-unit 2900 a-d may be less than the overall intendedexpansion gap or void fraction for the entire battery 1804 or stackedcell 2904, but other ones of the electrode sub-units 2900 a-d maycomprise larger expansion gaps 3002 or void fractions to accommodate thesmaller expansion gaps 3002 or void fractions in other ones of theelectrode sub-units 2900 a-d. For example, in one embodiment, everyother electrode sub-unit 2900 a-d in a population may comprise anexpansion gap 3002 and/or void fraction that is 2× to accommodate otherones of the electrode sub-units 2900 a-d having substantially no gapand/or void fraction, or a smaller expansion gap or void fraction, wherea cumulative gap over the population of electrode sub-units is intendedto be N times x (where N is the number of individual electrode sub-unitsin the population). In another embodiment, every 5th electrode sub-unitin a population may comprise an expansion gap and/or void fraction thatis 5× to accommodate other unit cells having substantially no expansiongap and/or void fraction, where a cumulative gap over the population ofunit cells is intended to be N times x (where N is the number ofelectrode sub-units in the population). In yet another embodiment, every10th electrode sub unit in a population may comprise an expansion gapand/or void fraction that is 10× to accommodate other electrodesub-units having substantially no expansion gap and/or void fraction,where a cumulative gap over the population of electrode sub units isintended to be N times x (where N is the number of unit cells in thepopulation). In yet a further embodiment, for a cumulative gap over thepopulation of electrode sub units that is intended to be N times x(where N is the number of electrode sub units in the population), theexpansion gap and/or void fraction in an electrode sub unit in thepopulation may be at least 1%, at least 5%, at least 10%, and/or atleast 15% of the average gap and/or void space intended for thepopulation (e.g., (N times x)/(number of unit cells in the population)),and may be less than 90%, less than 80%, less than 75%, less than 50%,less than 35%, less than 20%, less than 10%, and/or less than 5% of theaverage expansion gap and/or void space intended for the population(e.g., (N times x)/(number of electrode sub-units in the population)).The number of unit cells N in the population may be, for example, atleast 2, 5, 8, 10, 15, 20, 30,40, 50, 75, 80, 80, 100, 150, 200, 300,500, 800, 1000, or even greater, and/or the number N of electrodesub-units may correspond to the entire number of electrode sub-units inthe battery 1804.

In some embodiments, the spacer members 2700 a-d of one or moreelectrode sub-units may be removed prior to stacking a population ofelectrode sub-units into a stacked cell 2904. For example, in someembodiments, the spacer members 2700 a-d may be provided in a marginthat is defined distally (in the X-Axis Direction) of a base materiallayer such that the spacer members are outside (distal to) in thecross-web directions XWD one or more of the perforations 608, 610 suchthat when the perforations are ruptured during the punching and stackingoperations described herein, that the spacer members 2700 a-d areremoved and do not become part of the stacked cell 2904. In suchembodiments, the expansion gaps 3002 formed by the spacer members 2700a-d still remain even after the spacer members 2700 a-d are removed fromthe electrode sub-units.

With reference to FIG. 33 , exemplary unit cells 3300 are described withrespect to embodiments of electrode sub-units 3018. Electrode sub-unitsare the same as or similar to electrode sub-units 2018 or 2900 a-d asdescribed herein. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 33 , the electrodesub-unit 3018 comprises in a stacked configuration from top to bottom ananodically active material layer 3508 a, anode current collector layer3506, anodically active material layer 3508 b, separator 3500 a,cathodically active material layer 3512 a, cathode current collectorlayer 3510, cathodically active material layer 3512 b and separator 500b. It is noted that anodically active material layer 3508 a,b may be thesame as or similar to anodically active material layer 508, anodecurrent collector layer 3506 may be the same as or similar to anodecurrent collector 506, cathodically active material layer 3512 a,b, maybe the same as or similar to cathodically active material layer 512,cathode current collector 3510 may be the same as or similar to cathodecurrent collector 510 and separator 3500 a,b may be the same as orsimilar to separator 500 as described herein. In one embodiment, a unitcell 3300 comprises only a portion of the electrode sub-unit 3018. Inthis embodiment, the unit cell 3300 comprises from top to bottom, aportion of anode current collector 3506, anodically active materiallayer 3508 b, separator 3500 a, cathodically active material layer 512 aand a portion of cathode current collector 3510. It should be noted thatan electrode sub-unit 3018 may comprise at least one unit cell 3300 andany number of additional full or partial unit cells, as desired.However, in one embodiment, a single unit cell 3300 comprises only anodecurrent collector 3506, anodically active material layer 3508 b,separator 3500 a, cathodically active material layer 512 a and a cathodecurrent collector 3510.

As shown in FIG. 33B, three electrode sub-units 3018 are stackedadjacently one atop each other, to form a stacked cell 3020. Electrodesub-units 3018 are stacked (in a manner similar to that described withrespect to electrode sub-units 2018) to define a stacked population ofelectrode sub-units 3020. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 33B, there isa series of three electrode sub-units 3018 vertically adjacent oneanother in the Y-Axis direction. This stacked population of electrodesub-units 3020 thus comprises three unit cells 3300, two unit cells3300′ and two partial unit cells 3025 a and 3025 b. Unit cells 3300′ areequivalent to unit cells 3300 but are a mirror image of unit cells 3300in the Y-Axis direction. In this embodiment, partial unit cell 3025 acomprises only anodically active material layer 3508 a and a portion ofanode current collector 3506, and partial unit cell 3025 b comprises aportion of cathode current collector 3510, cathodically active materiallayer 3512 b and separator 3500 b. In other embodiments, the layeredarrangement of the electrode sub-units 3018 may vary in order and numberof layers.

In some embodiments, with reference to FIGS. 34A,B, one or more mainbody spacers 3400 may be provided within the main body 2725 (e.g.,central portion) of an electrode sub-unit 3400. Electrode sub unit 3400may be the same as or similar to electro sub units 2018, 3018, and 2900a-d, but with the addition of one or more main body spacers 3400. Inthis embodiment, the main body spacers perform a function similar tospacer members 2700 a-d by providing an expansion gap 3002. Main bodyspacers may also be referred to herein as supplemental spacers. However,in this embodiment, the main body spacers 3402 may comprise the samematerial as anodically active material layer 508, when adjacentanodically active material layer 508, for example as shown in FIG. 34A.In another embodiment, such as that shown in FIG. 34B, the main bodyspacers 3402 may comprise the same material as cathodically activematerial layer 512 when adjacent cathodically active material layer 512.In other embodiments, the main body spacers 3402 may comprise asacrificial material that is dissolved or otherwise removed any timeafter formation of the expansion gap 3002. The main body spacers 3400may comprise a continuous spacer or a plurality of discrete spacersdispersed over a desired layer of the main body area 2725. In yet otherembodiments, the main body spacers 3400 may also comprise a series ofbumps, protrusions or surface roughness sufficient to provide thedesired expansion gap 3002.

The following embodiments are provided to illustrate aspects of thedisclosure, although the embodiments are not intended to be limiting andother aspects and/or embodiments may also be provided.

Embodiment 1. A secondary battery for cycling between a charged stateand a discharged state, the battery comprises an enclosure and anelectrode assembly disposed within the enclosure, wherein the electrodeassembly has mutually perpendicular transverse, longitudinal, andvertical axes corresponding to the x, y and z axes, respectively, of athree-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, the electrode assemblycomprises a population of unit cells, each unit cell comprising anelectrode current collector layer, an electrode layer, a separatorlayer, a counter-electrode layer, and a counter-electrode currentcollector layer in stacked succession in the longitudinal direction, theelectrode layer comprises an electrode active material, and thecounter-electrode layer comprises a counter-electrode active material,wherein one of the electrode active material and the counter-electrodematerial is a cathodically active material and the other of theelectrode active material and the counter-electrode material is ananodically active material, a subset of the unit cell population furthercomprising a pair of spacer members located in the stacked successionbetween the electrode current collector layer and the counter-electrodecurrent collector layer, one of the spacer members being spaced in thetransverse direction from the other spacer member, at least a portion ofthe counter-electrode active material of the counter-electrode layerbeing located between the spacer members such that the portion of thecounter-electrode active material and the spacer members lie in a commonplane defined by the x and z axes.

Embodiment 1A. An electrode assembly having mutually perpendiculartransverse, longitudinal, and vertical axes corresponding to the x, yand z axes, respectively, of a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinatesystem. The electrode assembly comprises a population of unit cells,each unit cell comprises an electrode current collector layer, anelectrode layer, a separator layer, a counter-electrode layer, and acounter-electrode current collector layer in stacked succession in thelongitudinal direction. The electrode layer comprises an electrodeactive material, and the counter-electrode layer comprises acounter-electrode active material. One of the electrode active materialand the counter-electrode material is a cathodically active material andthe other of the electrode active material and the counter-electrodematerial is an anodically active material. A subset of the unit cellpopulation further comprises a pair of spacer members located in thestacked succession between the electrode current collector layer and thecounter-electrode current collector layer. One of the spacer members isspaced in the transverse direction from the other spacer member. Atleast a portion of the counter-electrode active material of thecounter-electrode layer is located between the spacer members such thatthe portion of the counter-electrode active material and the spacermembers lie in a common plane defined by the x and z axes.

Embodiment 1B. An electrode assembly for cycling between a charged stateand a discharged state in a battery, the battery comprising an enclosureand an electrode assembly disposed within the enclosure, wherein theelectrode assembly has mutually perpendicular transverse, longitudinal,and vertical axes corresponding to the x, y and z axes, respectively, ofa three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. The electrode assemblycomprises a population of unit cells, each unit cell having a main body,a first edge margin, a second edge margin separated in the transversedirection from the first edge margin, a front, a back separated in thelongitudinal direction from the front, a top, and a bottom separated inthe vertical direction from the top, each main body comprising anelectrode current collector layer, an electrode layer, a separatorlayer, a counter-electrode layer, and a counter-electrode currentcollector layer in stacked succession in the longitudinal direction. Theelectrode layer comprises an electrode active material, and thecounter-electrode layer comprises a counter-electrode active material,wherein one of the electrode active material and the counter-electrodematerial is a cathodically active material and the other of theelectrode active material and the counter-electrode material is ananodically active material. Each of the first edge margin and the secondedge margin comprises (i) the electrode current collector layer, theseparator layer, and the counter-electrode current collector layer, and(ii) a tape spacer, each of the tape spacers being adhered to at leastone of (i) the electrode current collector, (ii) the electrode layer,(iii) the separator, and (iv) the counter-electrode current collector,the counter-electrode layer having a first end and a second end spacedin the transverse direction from the first end to define a transverseextent of the counter-electrode layer, the transverse extent of thecounter-electrode layer terminating prior to the first edge margin andsecond edge margin.

Embodiment 1C. An electrode assembly for a battery configured to cyclebetween a charged state and a discharged state, the electrode assemblyhaving mutually perpendicular transverse, longitudinal, and verticalaxes corresponding to the x, y and z axes, respectively, of athree-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, the electrode assemblyhaving a main body, a first edge margin, a second edge margin separatedin the transverse direction from the first edge margin, a front, a backseparated in the longitudinal direction from the front, a top, and abottom in the vertical direction from the top, the main body comprisingan electrode current collector layer, an electrode layer, a separatorlayer, a counter-electrode layer, counter-electrode layer, and acounter-electrode current collector layer in stacked succession in thelongitudinal direction. The electrode layer comprises an electrodeactive material, and the counter-electrode layer comprises acounter-electrode active material, wherein one of the electrode activematerial and the counter-electrode material is a cathodically activematerial and the other of the electrode active material and thecounter-electrode material is an anodically active material. Each of thefirst edge margin and the second edge margins of the main body comprises(i) the electrode current collector layer, the separator layer, and thecounter-electrode current collector layer, and (ii) a first tape spacerdisposed in the first edge margin and a second tape spacer disposed inthe second edge margin; each of the first tape spacer and the secondtape spacer being adhered to at least one of (i) the electrode currentcollector, (ii) the electrode layer, (iii) the separator, and (iv) thecounter-electrode current collector, the counter-electrode layer havinga first end and a second end spaced in the transverse direction from thefirst end to define a transverse extent of the counter-electrode layer,the transverse extent of the counter-electrode layer terminating priorto the first edge margin and second edge margin.

Embodiment 1D. A secondary battery for cycling between a charged stateand a discharged state, the battery comprising an enclosure and anelectrode assembly disposed within the enclosure, wherein: the electrodeassembly has mutually perpendicular transverse, longitudinal, andvertical axes corresponding to the x, y and z axes, respectively, of athree-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, the electrode assemblycomprises a population of unit cells, each unit cell comprising anelectrode current collector layer, an electrode layer, a separatorlayer, a counter-electrode layer, and a counter-electrode currentcollector layer in stacked succession in the longitudinal direction, theelectrode layer comprises an electrode active material, and thecounter-electrode layer comprises a counter-electrode active material,wherein one of the electrode active material and the counter-electrodematerial is a cathodically active material and the other of theelectrode active material and the counter-electrode material is ananodically active material, a subset of the unit cell population furthercomprising a pair of spacer members located in the stacked successionbetween the electrode current collector layer and the counter-electrodecurrent collector layer, one of the spacer members being spaced in thetransverse direction from the other spacer member of the pair of spacermembers, at least a portion of the counter-electrode active material ofthe counter-electrode layer being located between the pair of spacermembers such that the portion of the counter-electrode active materialand the spacer members lie in a common plane defined by the x and zaxes.

Embodiment 2. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany of Embodiments 1-1C wherein the counter-electrode layer has acentral portion and a pair of flank portions on opposite sides of thecentral portion, the flank portions having a width equal to or less than50 percent of a width of the central portion.

Embodiment 3. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the width of the flank portions is lessthan 40 percent the width of the central portion.

Embodiment 4. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the width of the flank portions is lessthan 30 percent the width of the central portion.

Embodiment 5. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the width of the flank portions is lessthan 20 percent the width of the central portion.

Embodiment 6. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the width of the flank portions is lessthan 10 percent the width of the central portion.

Embodiment 7. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the counter-electrode layer has a maximumwidth measured between an interface with the counter-electrode currentcollector layer and an interface with the separator layer, the commonplane occurring over at least 50 percent of the maximum width.

Embodiment 8. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the common plane occurs over at least 60percent of the maximum width.

Embodiment 9. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the common plane occurs over at least 70percent of the maximum width.

Embodiment 10. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the common plane occurs over at least 80percent of the maximum width.

Embodiment 11. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inclaim 10 wherein the common plane occurs over at least 90 percent of themaximum width.

Embodiment 12. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members have a length extendingin the transverse direction, the length of the spacer members beingequal to or less than 500 μm.

Embodiment 13. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the length of the spacer members is lessthan 400 μm.

Embodiment 14. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the length of the spacer members is lessthan 300 μm.

Embodiment 15. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the length of the spacer members is lessthan 200 μm.

Embodiment 16. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the length of the spacer members is lessthan 100 μm.

Embodiment 17. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the counter-electrode layer has a first endand a second end spaced in the transverse direction from the first end,the first end of the counter-electrode layer being adjacent to one ofthe spacer members and the second end of the counter-electrode layerbeing adjacent to the other one of the spacer members.

Embodiment 18. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the first end and the second end correspondto the pair of flank portions.

Embodiment 19. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the counter-electrode material is acathodically active material, and the electrode active material is ananodically active material.

Embodiment 20. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the electrode material is a cathodicallyactive material, and the counter-electrode active material is ananodically active material.

Embodiment 21. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members are disposed between theseparator layer and the electrode layer.

Embodiment 22. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members are disposed between theseparator layer and the electrode current collector layer.

Embodiment 23. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members are disposed between theseparator and the counter-electrode layer.

Embodiment 24. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members are disposed between theseparator layer and the counter-electrode current collector layer.

Embodiment 25. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members are adhered to at leastone of the electrode current collector layer, the electrode layer, theseparator layer, the counter-electrode layer, and the counter-electrodecurrent collector layer.

Embodiment 26. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members are adhered to theelectrode current collector layer.

Embodiment 27. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members are adhered to theelectrode layer.

Embodiment 28. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members are adhered to theseparator layer.

Embodiment 29. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members are adhered to thecounter-electrode current collector layer.

Embodiment 30. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the electrode layer has a first end and asecond end spaced in the transverse direction from the first end todefine a transverse extent of the electrode layer, the transverse extentof the electrode layer terminating prior to a terminus of the unit cell.

Embodiment 31. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein (i) the members of the unit cell populationare in stacked succession in the longitudinal direction, (ii) the unitcell population comprises two sets of adjacent pairs of unit cells (iii)one of the two sets of the adjacent pairs share a common electrodecurrent collector layer and the other of the two sets of the adjacentpairs share a common counter-electrode current collector layer.

Embodiment 32. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the unit cell population comprises at least5 members.

Embodiment 33. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the unit cell population comprises at least10 members.

Embodiment 34. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment the unit cell population comprises at least 25members.

Embodiment 35. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the unit cell population comprises at least50 members.

Embodiment 36. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the unit cell population comprises at least100 members.

Embodiment 37. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the unit cell population comprises at least250 members.

Embodiment 38. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the unit cell population comprises at least500 members.

Embodiment 39. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members comprise an electricallyinsulating material.

Embodiment 40. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the unit cell comprises a supplementalspacer.

Embodiment 41. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the supplemental spacer comprises the samematerial as the separator layer.

Embodiment 42. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the unit cell comprises a supplementalspacer comprising stabilized lithium metal particles.

Embodiment 43. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the unit cell comprises a supplementalspacer comprising stabilized lithium metal particles selected from thegroup consisting of lithium carbonate-stabilized lithium metal powder,lithium silicate-stabilized lithium metal powder.

Embodiment 44. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the unit cell comprises a supplementalspacer comprising the stabilized lithium metal particles applied byspraying, loading or otherwise disposing the stabilized lithium metalparticles at a loading amount of about to 5 mg/cm².

Embodiment 45. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the unit cell comprises a supplementalspacer comprising the stabilized lithium metal particles applied byspraying, loading or otherwise disposing the stabilized lithium metalparticles at a loading amount of about to 4 mg/cm².

Embodiment 46. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the unit cell comprises a supplementalspacer comprising the stabilized lithium metal particles applied byspraying, loading or otherwise disposing the stabilized lithium metalparticles at a loading amount of about 0.5 to 3 mg/cm².

Embodiment 47. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the unit cell comprises a supplementalspacer comprising stabilized lithium metal particles having an averageparticle size (D₅₀) of about 5 to 200 μm.

Embodiment 48. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the unit cell comprises a supplementalspacer comprising stabilized lithium metal particles having an averageparticle size (D₅₀) of about 10 to 100 μm.

Embodiment 49. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the unit cell comprises a supplementalspacer comprising stabilized lithium metal particles having an averageparticle size (D₅₀) of about 20 to 80 μm.

Embodiment 50. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the unit cell comprises a supplementalspacer comprising stabilized lithium metal particles having an averageparticle size (D₅₀) of about 30 to 50 μm.

Embodiment 51. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members comprise a spacermaterial selected from the group consisting of polymeric materials,composites, a material comprised by the electrode current collector, anelectrode active material, the counter-electrode active material, amaterial comprised by the counter-electrode current collector, amaterial comprised by the separator, or a material that is chemicallyinert in the battery environment.

Embodiment 52. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members comprise an anodicallyactive material.

Embodiment 53. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members comprise an anodicallyactive material having a capacity for carrier ions that is less than onemole of carrier ion per mole of spacer material.

Embodiment 54. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members comprise graphite orgraphene.

Embodiment 55. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members comprise a cathodicallyactive material.

Embodiment 56. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members comprise a polymericmaterial.

Embodiment 57. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members comprise a homopolymer,copolymer or polymer blend).

Embodiment 58. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members comprise a fluoropolymerderived from monomers containing vinylidene fluoride,hexafluoropropylene, tetrafluoropropene, a polyolefin such aspolyethylene, polypropylene, or polybutene, ethylene-diene-propeneterpolymer, polystyrene, polymethyl methacrylate, polyethylene glycol,polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl butyral, polyacetal, and polyethyleneglycoldiacrylate, methyl cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose, styrene rubber,butadiene rubber, styrene-butadiene rubber, isoprene rubber,polyacrylamide, polyvinyl ether, polyacrylic acid, polymethacrylic acid,polyacrylonitrile, polyvinylidene fluoride polyacrylonitrile,polyethylene oxide, acrylates, styrenes, epoxies, silicones,polyvinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene, polyvinylidenefluoride-co-trichloroethylene, polymethylmethacrylate,polyacrylonitrile, polyvinylpyrrolidone, polyvinyl acetate,polyethylene-co-vinyl acetate, polyethylene oxide, cellulose acetate,cellulose acetate butyrate, cellulose acetate propionate,cyanoethylpullulan, cyanoethyl polyvinylalcohol, cyanoethylcellulose,cyanoethylsucrose, pullulan, carboxymetyl cellulose,acrylonitrile-styrene-butadiene copolymer, polyimide, polyvinylidenefluoride-hexafluoro propylene, polyvinylidenefluoride-trichloroethylene, polymethyl methacrylate, polyacrylonitrile,polyvinyl pyrrolidone, polyvinyl acetate, ethylene vinyl acetatecopolymer, polyethylene oxide, cellulose acetate, cellulose acetatebutyrate, cellulose acetate propionate, cyanoethyl pullulan, cyanoethylpolyvinyl alcohol, cyanoethyl cellulose, cyanoethyl sucrose, pullulan,carboxyl methyl cellulose, acrylonitrile styrene butadiene copolymer,polyimide, polyethylene terephthalate, polybutylene terephthalate,polyester, polyacetal, polyamide, polyetheretherketone, polyethersulfone, polyphenylene oxide, polyphenylene sulfide, polyethylenenaphthalene, and/or combinations or a copolymer thereof.

Embodiment 59. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members comprise afluoropolymer.

Embodiment 60. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members comprise a polyolefin.

Embodiment 61. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members comprise a polyolefinselected from the group consisting of homopolymers, copolymers andpolymer blends of polyethylene, polypropylene, and polybutene.

Embodiment 62. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members comprise polyethylene orpolypropylene.

Embodiment 63. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members comprise an adhesivetape having a base and an adhesive layer provided on one surface of thebase.

Embodiment 64. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members comprise an adhesivetape having a base and an adhesive layer provided on one surface of thebase wherein the adhesive tape base comprises a polymeric film selectedfrom the group consisting of polyethylene, polypropylene, polyethyleneterephthalate, polybutylene terephthalate, polyphenylene sulfide,polyimide, and polyamide films, and combinations, thereof.

Embodiment 65. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members comprise an adhesivetape having a base and an adhesive layer provided on one surface of thebase wherein the adhesive tape base comprises a polymeric film selectedfrom the group consisting of polyolefin, polyethylene terephthalate andpolyimide films.

Embodiment 66. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members comprise an adhesivetape having a base and an adhesive layer provided on one surface of thebase wherein the adhesive tape base has a thickness in the range ofabout 4 to 200 μm.

Embodiment 67. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members comprise an adhesivetape having a base and an adhesive layer provided on one surface of thebase wherein the adhesive tape base has a thickness in the range ofabout 6 to 150 μm.

Embodiment 68. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members comprise an adhesivetape having a base and an adhesive layer provided on one surface of thebase wherein the adhesive tape base has a thickness in the range ofabout 25 to 100 μm.

Embodiment 69. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members comprise an adhesivetape having a base and an adhesive layer provided on one surface of thebase wherein the adhesive constituting the adhesive layer of theadhesive tape comprises a rubber-based adhesive, an acrylic adhesive, asilicone-based adhesive or a combination thereof.

Embodiment 70. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members comprise the samematerial as the separator layer.

Embodiment 71. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members comprise an electricallyconductive material.

Embodiment 72. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members comprise the samematerial as the electrode layer.

Embodiment 73. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members define, in part,transverse terminus of the unit cell.

Embodiment 74. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members accommodate expansion ofat least one of the electrode layer and the counter-electrode layer inthe longitudinal direction while the battery is cycling between thecharged state and the discharged state.

Embodiment 75. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members accommodate expansion ofthe electrode layer.

Embodiment 76. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein a first portion of the separator layer liesin a first plane defined by the x and z axes, and a pair of secondportions of the separator layer lies in a second plane defined by the xand z axes, the second plane being offset from the first plane in thelongitudinal direction.

Embodiment 77. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the first portion of the separator layer isdisposed in face-to-face engagement with the counter-electrode layer,and the second portions of the separator layer is disposed adjacent afirst end and a second end of the counter-electrode layer.

Embodiment 78. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the electrode layer has a transverse extentand the counter-electrode layer has a transverse extent, the transverseextent of the electrode layer being greater than the transverse extendof the counter-electrode layer.

Embodiment 79. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the transverse extent of the electrodelayer is less than 500 nm greater than the transverse extend of thecounter-electrode layer.

Embodiment 80. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the transverse extent of the electrodelayer is less than 400 μm greater than the transverse extend of thecounter-electrode layer.

Embodiment 81. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the transverse extent of the electrodelayer is less than 300 μm greater than the transverse extend of thecounter-electrode layer.

Embodiment 82. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the transverse extent of the electrodelayer is less than 200 μm greater than the transverse extend of thecounter-electrode layer.

Embodiment 83. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inclaim 82 wherein the transverse extent of the electrode layer is lessthan 100 μm greater than the transverse extend of the counter-electrodelayer.

Embodiment 84. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the electrode layer has a transverse extentand the counter-electrode layer has a transverse extent, the transverseextent of the electrode layer being equal to the transverse extend ofthe counter-electrode layer.

Embodiment 85. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the unit cell has a height measured in thevertical direction and the spacer members have a height measured in thevertical direction, the height of the unit cell being equal to theheight of the spacer members.

Embodiment 86. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the unit cell has a height measured in thevertical direction and the spacer members have a height measured in thevertical direction, the height of the unit cell being greater than theheight of the spacer members.

Embodiment 87. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the unit cell has a height measured in thevertical direction and the spacer members have a height measured in thevertical direction, the height of the unit cell being less than theheight of the spacer members.

Embodiment 88. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the pair of spacer members defines a firstpair of spacer members and the subset of the unit cell populationfurther comprises a second pair of spacer members located in the stackedsuccession between the electrode current collector layer and thecounter-electrode current collector layer.

Embodiment 89. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members of the first pair ofspacer members are disposed on one side of the separator layer and thespacer members of the second pair of spacer members are disposed on theopposite side on the separator layer.

Embodiment 90. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein the spacer members of the first pair ofspacer members are disposed between the separator layer and thecounter-electrode current collector layer, and the spacer members of thesecond pair of spacer members are disposed between the separator layerand the electrode current collector layer.

Embodiment 91. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein one of the electrode active material andthe counter-electrode material is an anodically active material selectedfrom the group consisting of: (a) silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin(Sn), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), aluminum (Al),titanium (Ti), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), and cadmium (Cd); (b) alloys orintermetallic compounds of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Ni, Co,or Cd with other elements; (c) oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides,phosphides, selenides, and tellurides of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al,Ti, Fe, Ni, Co, V, or Cd, and their mixtures, composites, orlithium-containing composites; (d) salts and hydroxides of Sn; (e)lithium titanate, lithium manganate, lithium aluminate,lithium-containing titanium oxide, lithium transition metal oxide,ZnCo₂O₄; (f) particles of graphite and carbon; (g) lithium metal; and(h) combinations thereof.

Embodiment 92. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein one of the electrode active material andthe counter-electrode material is an anodically active material selectedfrom the group consisting of silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn),lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), aluminum (Al),titanium (Ti), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), and cadmium (Cd).

Embodiment 93. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein one of the electrode active material andthe counter-electrode material is an anodically active material selectedfrom the group consisting of alloys and intermetallic compounds of Si,Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Ni, Co, or Cd with other elements.

Embodiment 94. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein one of the electrode active material andthe counter-electrode material is an anodically active material selectedfrom the group consisting of oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides,phosphides, selenides, and tellurides of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al,Ti, Fe, Ni, Co, V, and Cd.

Embodiment 95. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein one of the electrode active material andthe counter-electrode material is an anodically active material selectedfrom the group consisting of oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides,phosphides, selenides, and tellurides of Si.

Embodiment 96. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein one of the electrode active material andthe counter-electrode material is an anodically active material selectedfrom the group consisting of silicon and the oxides and carbides ofsilicon.

Embodiment 97. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein one of the electrode active material andthe counter-electrode material is anodically active material comprisinglithium metal.

Embodiment 98. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein one of the electrode active material andthe counter-electrode material is an anodically active material selectedfrom the group consisting of graphite and carbon.

Embodiment 99. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein within the enclosure the secondary batteryfurther comprises a non-aqueous, organic electrolyte.

Embodiment 100. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein within the enclosure the secondary batteryfurther comprises a non-aqueous electrolyte comprising a mixture of alithium salt and an organic solvent.

Embodiment 101. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein within the enclosure the secondary batteryfurther comprises a polymer electrolyte.

Embodiment 102. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein within the enclosure the secondary batteryfurther comprises a solid electrolyte.

Embodiment 103. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein within the enclosure the secondary batteryfurther comprises a solid electrolyte selected from the group consistingof sulfide-based electrolytes.

Embodiment 104. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein within the enclosure the secondary batteryfurther comprises a solid electrolyte selected from the group consistingof lithium tin phosphorus sulfide (Li₁₀SnP₂Si₂), lithium phosphorussulfide (β-Li₃PS₄) and lithium phosphorus sulfur chloride iodide(Li₆PS₅Cl_(0.9)I_(0.1)).

Embodiment 105. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein within the enclosure the secondary batteryfurther comprises a polymer based electrolyte.

Embodiment 106. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein within the enclosure the secondary batteryfurther comprises a polymer electrolyte selected from the groupconsisting of PEO-based polymer electrolyte, polymer-ceramic compositeelectrolyte (solid), polymer-ceramic composite electrolyte, andpolymer-ceramic composite electrolyte.

107. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth in any priorEmbodiment wherein within the enclosure the secondary battery furthercomprises a solid electrolyte selected from the group consisting ofoxide based electrolytes.

Embodiment 108. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein within the enclosure the secondary batteryfurther comprises a solid electrolyte selected from the group consistingof lithium lanthanum titanate (Li_(0.34)La_(0.56)TiO₃), Al-doped lithiumlanthanum zirconate (Li_(6.24)La₃Zr₂Al_(0.24)O_(11.98)), Ta-dopedlithium lanthanum zirconate (Li_(6.4)La₃Zr_(1.4)Ta_(0.6)O₁₂) and lithiumaluminum titanium phosphate (Li_(1.4)Al_(0.4)Ti_(1.6)(PO₄)₃).

Embodiment 109. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein one of the electrode active material andthe counter-electrode material is a cathodically active materialselected from the group consisting of intercalation chemistry positiveelectrodes and conversion chemistry positive electrodes.

Embodiment 110. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein one of the electrode active material andthe counter-electrode material is a cathodically active materialcomprising an intercalation chemistry positive electrode material.

Embodiment 111. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein one of the electrode active material andthe counter-electrode material is a cathodically active materialcomprising a conversion chemistry positive electrode active material.

Embodiment 112. The secondary battery or electrode assembly set forth inany prior Embodiment wherein one of the electrode active material andthe counter-electrode material is a cathodically active materialselected from the group consisting of S (or Li₂S in the lithiatedstate), LiF, Fe, Cu, Ni, FeF₂, FeO_(d)F_(3.2d), FeF₃, CoF₃, CoF₂, CuF₂,NiF₂, where 0≤d≤0.5.

Embodiment 113. A method of manufacturing a unit cell for use with asecondary battery, the method comprises stacking an electrode currentcollector layer, an electrode layer, a separator layer, acounter-electrode layer, and a counter-electrode current collector layerin succession in the longitudinal direction, the electrode layercomprises an electrode active material, and the counter-electrode layercomprises a counter-electrode active material, wherein one of theelectrode active material and the counter-electrode material is acathodically active material and the other of the electrode activematerial and the counter-electrode material is an anodically activematerial, and placing a pair of spacer members in the stacked successionbetween the electrode current collector layer and the counter-electrodecurrent collector layer, one of the spacer members being spaced in atransverse direction from the other spacer member, at least a portion ofthe counter-electrode active material of the counter-electrode layerbeing located between the spacer members such that the portion of thecounter-electrode active material and the spacer members lie in a commonplane defined by an x axis and a z axis.

Embodiment 113A. A method of manufacturing an electrode assembly for usewith a secondary battery. The method comprises stacking an electrodecurrent collector layer, an electrode layer, a separator layer, acounter-electrode layer, and a counter-electrode current collector layerin succession in the longitudinal direction. The electrode layercomprises an electrode active material, and the counter-electrode layercomprises a counter-electrode active material. One of the electrodeactive material and the counter-electrode material is a cathodicallyactive material and the other of the electrode active material and thecounter-electrode material is an anodically active material. The methodincludes placing a pair of spacer members in the stacked successionbetween the electrode current collector layer and the counter-electrodecurrent collector layer. One of the spacer members is spaced in atransverse direction from the other spacer member. At least a portion ofthe counter-electrode active material of the counter-electrode layer islocated between the spacer members such that the portion of thecounter-electrode active material and the spacer members lie in a commonplane defined by an x axis and a z axis.

Embodiment 113B. A method of preparing an electrode assembly for abattery configured to cycle between a charged state and a dischargedstate, the method comprising: stacking an electrode current collectorlayer, an electrode layer, a separator layer, a counter-electrode layer,and a counter-electrode current collector layer in stacked succession inthe longitudinal direction; wherein the electrode layer comprises anelectrode active material, and the counter-electrode layer comprises acounter-electrode active material, wherein one of the electrode activematerial and the counter-electrode material is a cathodically activematerial and the other of the electrode active material and thecounter-electrode material is an anodically active material, adhering atape spacer to at least one of the electrode current collector layer,the electrode layer, the separator layer, the counter-electrode layer,or the counter-electrode current collector layer within a first edgemargin and a second edge margin such that the first edge margin and thesecond edge margin comprises (i) the electrode current collector layer,the separator layer, and the counter-electrode current collector layer,and (ii) the tape spacer, wherein the counter-electrode layer has afirst end and a second end spaced in the transverse direction from thefirst end to define a transverse extent of the counter-electrode layer,and the counter-electrode layer is provided such that the transverseextent of the counter electrode layer terminates prior to the first edgemargin and second edge margin.

Embodiment 113C. A method of manufacturing a secondary battery orelectrode assembly as set forth in any of Embodiments 1-112, the methodcomprising the method of any of Embodiments 113, 113A and 113B.

Embodiment 113D. A method of manufacturing a unit cell for use with asecondary battery, the unit cell having mutually perpendiculartransverse, longitudinal, and vertical axes corresponding to the x, yand z axes, respectively, of a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinatesystem the method comprising: stacking an electrode current collectorlayer, an electrode layer, a separator layer, a counter-electrode layer,and a counter-electrode current collector layer in succession in thelongitudinal axis direction, the electrode layer comprises an electrodeactive material, and the counter-electrode layer comprises acounter-electrode active material, wherein one of the electrode activematerial and the counter-electrode material is a cathodically activematerial and the other of the electrode active material and thecounter-electrode material is an anodically active material, and placinga pair of spacer members in the stacked succession between the electrodecurrent collector layer and the counter-electrode current collectorlayer, one of the spacer members being spaced in a transverse directionfrom the other spacer member, at least a portion of thecounter-electrode active material of the counter-electrode layer beinglocated between the spacer members such that the portion of thecounter-electrode active material and the spacer members lie in a commonplane defined by the x axis and the z axis.

Embodiment 114. The method set forth in any of Embodiments 113-113Cwherein the spacer members are placed between the separator layer andthe electrode layer.

Embodiment 115. The method set forth in any prior Embodiment wherein thespacer members are placed between the separator layer and the electrodecurrent collector layer.

Embodiment 116. The method set forth in any prior Embodiment wherein thespacer members placed between the separator and the counter-electrodelayer.

Embodiment 117. The method set forth in any prior Embodiment wherein thespacer members are placed between the separator layer and thecounter-electrode current collector layer.

Embodiment 118. The method set forth in any prior Embodiment wherein thespacer members are adhered to at least one of the electrode currentcollector layer, the electrode layer, the separator layer, thecounter-electrode layer, and the counter-electrode current collectorlayer.

Embodiment 119. The method set forth in any prior Embodiment wherein thespacer members are adhered to the electrode current collector layer.

Embodiment 120. The method set forth in any prior Embodiment wherein thespacer members are adhered to the electrode layer.

Embodiment 121. The method set forth in any prior Embodiment wherein thespacer members are adhered to the separator layer.

Embodiment 122. The method set forth in any prior Embodiment wherein thespacer members are adhered to the counter-electrode current collectorlayer.

Embodiment 123. The method set forth in any prior Embodiment furthercomprising placing a supplemental spacer in the stacked successionbetween the electrode current collector layer and the counter-electrodecurrent collector layer.

Embodiment 124. The method set forth in any prior Embodiment wherein afirst portion of the separator layer is stacked in face-to-faceengagement with the counter-electrode layer, and second portions of theseparator layer are stacked adjacent a first end and a second end of thecounter-electrode layer.

Embodiment 125. The method set forth in any prior Embodiment wherein theelectrode current collector layer, the electrode layer, the separatorlayer, the counter-electrode layer, and the counter-electrode currentcollector layer are stacked on alignment pins.

Embodiment 126. The method set forth in any prior Embodiment wherein thepair of spacer members is placed on the alignment pins between theelectrode current collector layer and the counter-electrode currentcollector layer.

Embodiment 127. A method for merging a plurality of webs of electrodematerials, the process comprises: unwinding a first web of the electrodematerial along a first web merge path, the first web comprising apopulation of electrode sub-units delineated by corresponding weakenedtear patterns and a population of first conveying features, unwinding asecond web of the electrode material along a second web merge pathdownstream of the first web merge path, the second web comprising apopulation of electrode sub-units delineated by corresponding weakenedtear patterns and a population of second conveying features; conveying abelt comprising a plurality of projections in a web merge directionadjacent the first web merge path and the second web merge path, theplurality of projections configured to engage with the first conveyingfeatures of the first web and the second conveying features of thesecond web; inserting a population of spacer members between the firstweb of electrode material and the second web of electrode material; andoverlaying the second web of the electrode material on the first web ofelectrode material at a second web merge location downstream of thefirst web merge location, the population of spacer members beingcaptured between the first web of electrode material and the second webof electrode material.

Embodiment 127A. A method for merging a plurality of webs of electrodematerials, the process comprising: unwinding a first web of theelectrode material along a first web merge path, the first webcomprising a population of electrode sub-units delineated bycorresponding weakened tear patterns and a population of first conveyingfeatures, unwinding a second web of the electrode material along asecond web merge path downstream of the first web merge path, the secondweb comprising a population of electrode sub-units delineated bycorresponding weakened tear patterns and a population of secondconveying features; conveying a belt comprising a plurality ofprojections in a web merge direction adjacent the first web merge pathand the second web merge path, the plurality of projections configuredto engage with the first conveying features of the first web and thesecond conveying features of the second web; inserting a population ofspacer members between the first web of electrode material and thesecond web of electrode material; and overlaying the second web of theelectrode material on the first web of electrode material at a secondweb merge location downstream of the first web merge location, thepopulation of spacer members being captured between the first web ofelectrode material and the second web of electrode material.

Embodiment 128. The method set forth in any prior Embodiment whereininserting a population of spacer members between the first web ofelectrode material and the second web of electrode material comprisesunwinding a web comprising a population of spacer members and mergingthe web of spacer members between the first web of electrode materialand the second web of electrode material.

Embodiment 129. The method set forth in any prior Embodiment whereininserting a population of spacer members between the first web ofelectrode material and the second web of electrode material comprisesunwinding a web comprising a population of spacer members and unwindinga web comprising a plurality of separator members, and merging the webof spacer members adjacent to the web of separator members and betweenthe first web of electrode material and the second web of electrodematerial.

This written description uses examples to disclose the invention,including the best mode, and also to enable any person skilled in theart to practice the invention, including making and using any devices orsystems and performing any incorporated methods. The patentable scope ofthe invention is defined by the claims, and may include other examplesthat occur to those skilled in the art. Such other examples are intendedto be within the scope of the claims if they have structural elementsthat do not differ from the literal language of the claims, or if theyinclude equivalent structural elements with insubstantial differencesfrom the literal languages of the claims.

1-30. (canceled)
 31. A secondary battery for cycling between a chargedstate and a discharged state, the secondary battery comprising anenclosure and an electrode assembly disposed within the enclosure,wherein: the electrode assembly has mutually perpendicular transverse,longitudinal, and vertical axes corresponding to the x, y and z axes,respectively, of a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, theelectrode assembly comprises a population of unit cells, each unit cellcomprising an electrode layer, a separator layer, and acounter-electrode layer in stacked succession in the longitudinaldirection, the electrode layer comprises an electrode current collectorand an electrode active material, and the counter-electrode layercomprises a counter-electrode current collector and a counter-electrodeactive material, a subset of the unit cell population further comprisesa pair of spacer members located in the stacked succession between theseparator layer and the electrode current collector, one of the spacermembers being spaced in the transverse direction from the other spacermember of the pair of spacer members such that each spacer member ispositioned adjacent a distal end of the separator layer, at least aportion of the counter-electrode active material of thecounter-electrode layer is located between the pair of spacer memberssuch that the portion of the counter-electrode active material and thespacer members lie in a common plane defined by the x and z axes, andthe separator layer is conformed at each distal end to be in contactwith each of the counter-electrode active material and thecounter-electrode current collector.
 32. The secondary battery set forthin claim 31 wherein the counter-electrode material is a cathodicallyactive material and the electrode active material is an anodicallyactive material.
 33. The secondary battery set forth in claim 31 whereinthe counter-electrode layer has a central portion and a pair of flankportions on opposite sides of the central portion, the distal ends ofthe separator layer being in contact with the counter-electrode currentcollector at the flank portions and the counter-electrode activematerial extending across the central portion, the flank portions havinga width equal to or less than 50 percent of a width of the centralportion.
 34. The secondary battery set forth in claim 31 wherein thecounter-electrode layer has a central portion and a pair of flankportions on opposite sides of the central portion, the distal ends ofthe separator layer being in contact with the counter-electrode currentcollector at the flank portions and the counter-electrode activematerial extending across the central portion, the flank portions havinga width equal to or less than 30 percent of a width of the centralportion.
 35. The secondary battery set forth in claim 31 wherein thecounter-electrode active material of the counter-electrode layer has amaximum width measured in the longitudinal direction between aninterface with the counter-electrode current collector and an interfacewith the separator layer, the common plane occurring over at least 50percent of the maximum width.
 36. The secondary battery set forth inclaim 31 wherein each of the spacer members have a length extending inthe transverse direction, the length of the spacer members being equalto or less than 500 μm.
 37. The secondary battery set forth in claim 31wherein the spacer members are adhered to at least one of the electrodelayer and the separator layer.
 38. The secondary battery set forth inclaim 31 wherein the electrode active material of the electrode layerhas a first end and a second end spaced in the transverse direction fromthe first end to define a transverse extent of the electrode activematerial, the transverse extent of the electrode active materialterminating prior to a terminus of the unit cell.
 39. The secondarybattery set forth in claim 31 wherein (i) the members of the unit cellpopulation are in stacked succession in the longitudinal direction, (ii)the unit cell population comprises two sets of adjacent pairs of unitcells, and (iii) one of the two sets of the adjacent pairs share acommon electrode current collector and the other of the two sets of theadjacent pairs share a common counter-electrode current collector. 40.The secondary battery set forth in claim 31 wherein the spacer memberscomprise an electrically insulating material.
 41. The secondary batteryset forth in claim 31 wherein the spacer members comprise an adhesivetape having a base and an adhesive layer provided on one surface of thebase.
 42. The secondary battery set forth in claim 31 wherein the spacermembers comprise the same material as the separator layer.
 43. Thesecondary battery set forth in claim 31 wherein the spacer membersdefine, in part, a transverse terminus of the unit cell.
 44. Thesecondary battery set forth in claim 31 wherein the separator layer hasa middle portion extending between the distal ends, the middle portionlying in a first plane defined by the x and z axes, each of the distalends of the separator layer respectively lying in a second plane and athird plane defined by the x and z axes, the second and third planesbeing offset from the first plane in the longitudinal direction.
 45. Thesecondary battery set forth in claim 44 wherein the distal ends lie inthe same plane defined by the x and z axes.
 46. The secondary batteryset forth in claim 44 wherein the subset of the unit cell populationfurther comprises at least one supplemental spacer located in thestacked succession between the middle portion of the separator layer andthe electrode layer.
 47. The secondary battery set forth in claim 44wherein the middle portion of the separator layer is disposed inface-to-face engagement with the counter-electrode active material ofthe counter-electrode layer, and the distal ends of the separator layerare disposed adjacent a first end and a second end of thecounter-electrode active material of the counter-electrode layer,respectively.
 48. A method of manufacturing a unit cell for use with asecondary battery, the unit cell having mutually perpendiculartransverse, longitudinal, and vertical axes corresponding to the x, yand z axes, respectively, of a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinatesystem the method comprising: stacking an electrode layer, a separatorlayer, and a counter-electrode layer in stacked succession in thelongitudinal axis direction, the electrode layer comprises an electrodecurrent collector and an electrode active material, and thecounter-electrode layer comprises a counter-electrode current collectorand a counter-electrode active material, placing a pair of spacermembers in the stacked succession between the separator layer and theelectrode layer, one of the spacer members being spaced in thetransverse direction from the other spacer member of the pair of spacermembers such that each spacer member is positioned adjacent a distal endof the separator layer and at least a portion of the counter-electrodeactive material of the counter-electrode layer is located between thepair of spacer members, and conforming the distal ends of the separatorlayer such that the portion of the counter-electrode active material andthe spacer members lie in a common plane defined by the x and z axes andthe separator layer is in contact with each of the counter-electrodeactive material and the counter-electrode current collector.
 49. Themethod set forth in claim 48 wherein placing the pair of spacer membersin the stacked succession includes adhering the pair of spacer membersto at least one of the separator layer and the electrode layer.
 50. Themethod set forth in claim 49 comprising removably adhering the pair ofspacer members to the at least one of the separator layer and theelectrode layer.
 51. The method set forth in claim 49 comprisingpermanently adhering the pair of spacer members to the at least one ofthe separator layer and the electrode layer.
 52. The method set forth inclaim 48 further comprising forming an expansion gap between theseparator layer and the electrode layer using the pair of spacermembers.
 53. The method set forth in claim 52 wherein the expansion gapaccommodates expansion of the electrode active material of the electrodelayer in the longitudinal direction in response to carrier ions beingintroduced into the electrode active material during an initial chargingprocess such that the electrode active material at least partially fillsthe expansion gap.
 54. The method set forth in claim 52 wherein eachspacer member has a width W_(s1) in the longitudinal direction, thewidth W_(s1) being greater than a width of the expansion gap in thelongitudinal direction.
 55. A secondary battery for cycling between acharged state and a discharged state, the secondary battery comprisingan enclosure and an electrode assembly disposed within the enclosure,wherein: the electrode assembly has mutually perpendicular transverse,longitudinal, and vertical axes corresponding to the x, y and z axes,respectively, of a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, theelectrode assembly comprises a population of unit cells, each unit cellcomprising an electrode layer, a separator layer, and acounter-electrode layer in stacked succession in the longitudinaldirection, the electrode layer comprises an electrode current collectorand an electrode active material, and the counter-electrode layercomprises a counter-electrode current collector and a counter-electrodeactive material, the counter-electrode layer has a central portion and apair of flank portions on opposite sides of the central portion, thecounter-electrode active material extending across the central portionof the counter-electrode layer, a subset of the unit cell populationfurther comprises a pair of spacer members located in the stackedsuccession between the separator layer and the electrode layer, eachspacer member being positioned adjacent a distal end of the separatorlayer such that each distal end of the separator layer is locatedbetween one of the spacer members and one of the flank portions of thecounter-electrode layer, and at least a portion of the counter-electrodeactive material of the counter-electrode layer is located between thepair of spacer members such that the portion of the counter-electrodeactive material and the spacer members lie in a common plane defined bythe x and z axes.
 56. The secondary battery set forth in claim 55wherein the separator layer is conformed at each distal end to be incontact with each of the counter-electrode current collector and thecounter-electrode active material.
 57. The secondary battery set forthin claim 55 wherein the flank portions of the counter-electrode layerhave a width equal to or less than 50 percent of a width of the centralportion of the counter-electrode layer.
 58. The secondary battery setforth in claim 55 wherein the counter-electrode active material of thecounter-electrode layer has a maximum width measured in the longitudinaldirection between an interface with the counter-electrode currentcollector and an interface with the separator layer, the common planeoccurring over at least 50 percent of the maximum width.
 59. A secondarybattery for cycling between a charged state and a discharged state, thesecondary battery comprising an enclosure and an electrode assemblydisposed within the enclosure, wherein: the electrode assembly hasmutually perpendicular transverse, longitudinal, and vertical axescorresponding to the x, y and z axes, respectively, of athree-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, the electrode assemblycomprises a population of unit cells, each unit cell comprising anelectrode layer, a separator layer, and a counter-electrode layer instacked succession in the longitudinal direction, the electrode layercomprises an electrode current collector and an electrode activematerial, and the counter-electrode layer comprises a counter-electrodecurrent collector and a counter-electrode active material, wherein thecounter-electrode material is a cathodically active material and theelectrode active material is an anodically active material, a subset ofthe unit cell population further comprises a pair of spacer memberslocated in the stacked succession between the separator layer and theelectrode layer, one of the spacer members being spaced in thetransverse direction from the other spacer member of the pair of spacermembers such that each spacer member is positioned adjacent a distal endof the separator layer, and at least a portion of the counter-electrodeactive material of the counter-electrode layer is located between thepair of spacer members such that the portion of the counter-electrodeactive material and the spacer members lie in a common plane defined bythe x and z axes.
 60. The secondary battery set forth in claim 59wherein each spacer member has a width W_(s1) in the longitudinaldirection, the width W_(s1) being greater than a width of thecounter-electrode active material in the longitudinal direction.